How the Armed Forces Can Eliminate Discrimination in Their Officer Ranks Research Paper

AbstractOn July 26, 1948, Executive Order 9981: Desegregation of the Armed Forces was signed into law eliminating segregation in the military by President Truman. He envisioned an armed force that would extend opportunities to all persons. Though the Army strives to recruit a diverse fighting force that reflects the United States\' diversity, it tends not to reflect at the senior leadership level. However, African-Americans tend not to branch or choose combat arms military occupational specialty (MOS), thus not setting themselves up to be selected for a senior leadership position, when 59% of the general officer assignments are combat arms. To this end, the purpose of this qualitative methods study using a document analysis research strategy was to identify the main reasons behind the unreasonable representation rates of African-Americans in senior leadership positions in the U.S. armed forces today in order to formulate appropriate and timely recommendations to address this constraint in the future.Table of ContentsAbstract ..Chapter One: Introduction ..Chapter Two: Review of Literature ..Chapter Three: Methods ..Chapter Four: Results ..Chapter Five: Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations ..32Why there are few African-American Military Officers in Senior Leadership PositionsChapter One: IntroductionToday, of the approximately 1.3 million men and women on active duty in the U.S. armed forces, fully 43%, or about 560,000 individuals, are African-Americans (Cooper, 2020). However, at present, there is a stark and persistent paucity of senior leaders among these African-Americans service people among the more than half-million servicepersons in the military. Indeed, these disparate representation rates have remained stagnated for more than a half-century, with little or no substantive progress having been made in reducing these disparities. Although some encouraging signs are emanating from the White House and Pentagon at present that promise to improve African-Americans\' promotion opportunities to attain top leadership positions in the future, the process requires time, and some observers suggest time is no longer a luxury that the U.S. armed forces enjoy.The experience of African-Americans in the U.S. armed forces is inexorably tied to more than 350 years of slavery, which began in the early 1600s and the Jim Crow era, resulting in a nadir in American racial relations during the early part of the 20th century (Kendrick, 1998). Despite these brutally challenging and dehumanizing experiences and the obstacles in their path to equality, African-Americans have served with honor and distinction in every war that has been fought by the United States, including the Revolutionary War. In fact, according to Ender and his associates (2015), \"Indeed, a Black, 47-year-old, runaway slave named Crispus Attucks was the first American killed by a British soldier [...] in the course of events which would lead to independence in the United States\" (p. 231).One of the especially noteworthy aspects of this early commitment by African-Americans to defend the United States is the fact that they were actually exempted from the U.S. Militia Act of 1792, which mandated involuntary military construction for all males, but which was subsequently interpreted to mean that these provisions did not apply to blacks, free or otherwise (Ender et al., 2015). Nevertheless, and despite fighting against one white supremacist government on behalf of the similarly constituted United States and being treated far differently from their white counterparts, African-Americans have historically served the country as members of the armed forces. In this regard, Ender et al. (2015) point out that, Yet, in the new United States, African-Americans continued to serve in times of war in particular, in the War of 1812, and the Mexican Wars but their status as a soldier was second class at best (p. 231). Furthermore, and despite offers of their freedom…

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…AbstractOnJuly26,1948,ExecutiveOrder9981:DesegregationoftheArmedForceswassignedintolaweliminatingsegregationinthemilitarybyPresidentTruman.Heenvisionedanarmedforcethatwouldextendopportunitiestoallpersons.ThoughtheArmystrivestorecruitadiversefightingforcethatreflectstheUnitedStates\'diversity,ittendsnottoreflectattheseniorleadershiplevel.However,African-Americanstendnottobranchorchoosecombatarmsmilitaryoccupationalspecialty(MOS),thusnotsettingthemselvesuptobeselectedforaseniorleadershipposition,when59%ofthegeneralofficerassignmentsarecombatarms.Tothisend,thepurposeofthisqualitativemethodsstudyusingadocumentanalysisresearchstrategywastoidentifythemainreasonsbehindtheunreasonablerepresentationratesofAfrican-AmericansinseniorleadershippositionsintheU.S.armedforcestodayinordertoformulateappropriateandtimelyrecommendationstoaddressthisconstraintinthefuture.TableofContentsAbstract..ChapterOne:Introduction..ChapterTwo:ReviewofLiterature..ChapterThree:Methods..ChapterFour:Results..ChapterFive:Discussion,ConclusionandRecommendations..32WhytherearefewAfrican-AmericanMilitaryOfficersinSeniorLeadershipPositionsChapterOne:IntroductionToday,oftheapproximately1.3millionmenandwomenonactivedutyintheU.S.armedforces,fully43%,orabout560,000individuals,areAfrican-Americans(Cooper,2020).However,atpresent,thereisastarkandpersistentpaucityofseniorleadersamongtheseAfrican-Americansservicepeopleamongthemorethanhalf-millionservicepersonsinthemilitary.Indeed,thesedisparaterepresentationrateshaveremainedstagnatedformorethanahalf-century,withlittleornosubstantiveprogresshavingbeenmadeinreducingthesedisparities.AlthoughsomeencouragingsignsareemanatingfromtheWhiteHouseandPentagonatpresentthatpromisetoimproveAfrican-Americans\'promotionopportunitiestoattaintopleadershippositionsinthefuture,theprocessrequirestime,andsomeobserverssuggesttimeisnolongeraluxurythattheU.S.armedforcesenjoy.TheexperienceofAfrican-AmericansintheU.S.armedforcesisinexorablytiedtomorethan350yearsofslavery,whichbeganintheearly1600sandtheJimCrowera,resultinginanadirinAmericanracialrelationsduringtheearlypartofthe20thcentury(Kendrick,1998).Despitethesebrutallychallenginganddehumanizingexperiencesandtheobstaclesintheirpathtoequality,African-AmericanshaveservedwithhonoranddistinctionineverywarthathasbeenfoughtbytheUnitedStates,includingtheRevolutionaryWar.Infact,accordingtoEnderandhisassociates(2015),\"Indeed,aBlack,47-year-old,runawayslavenamedCrispusAttuckswasthefirstAmericankilledbyaBritishsoldier[...]inthecourseofeventswhichwouldleadtoindependenceintheUnitedStates\"(p.231).OneoftheespeciallynoteworthyaspectsofthisearlycommitmentbyAfrican-AmericanstodefendtheUnitedStatesisthefactthattheywereactuallyexemptedfromtheU.S.MilitiaActof1792,whichmandatedinvoluntarymilitaryconstructionforallmales,butwhichwassubsequentlyinterpretedtomeanthattheseprovisionsdidnotapplytoblacks,freeorotherwise(Enderetal.,2015).Nevertheless,anddespitefightingagainstonewhitesupremacistgovernmentonbehalfofthesimilarlyconstitutedUnitedStatesandbeingtreatedfardifferentlyfromtheirwhitecounterparts,African-Americanshavehistoricallyservedthecountryasmembersofthearmedforces.Inthisregard,Enderetal.(2015)pointoutthat,Yet,inthenewUnitedStates,African-Americanscontinuedtoserveintimesofwarinparticular,intheWarof1812,andtheMexicanWarsbuttheirstatusasasoldierwassecondclassatbest(p.231).Furthermore,anddespiteoffersoftheirfreedombytheembattledandstrugglingConfederacyiftheSouthprevailedintheCivilWar(anofferthatprofoundlycontradictedthefundamentalpreceptsuponwhichtheConfederacywasfounded),African-AmericansalsoplayedanessentialroleinwinningtheCivilWar(Enderetal.,2015).Itisalsoimportanttonotethatdespitebeingrelegatedtoasecond-classcitizenroleduringthelate19thcenturyandthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,African-Americanscontinuedtheirofmilitaryservicetothecountryevenwhentheywerecompelledtoserveinsegregatedunits.Thesetrens,though,didhelptounderscorefurthertheneedforseniorAfricanAmericanmilitaryleaderstocommandthesesegregatedunits,includingthefamedBuffalosoldiersintheIndianandSpanishAmericanWars.Consequently,HenryO.FlipperbecamethefirstAfricanAmericangraduatefromtheU.S.MilitaryAcademyatWestPointin1877asadirectresult.Another24blacksgraduatedfromtheacademybythefindesicle(Enderetal.,2015).Althoughracerelationsremainedstrainedduringthefirstdecadesofthe20thcentury,growingnumbersofAfricanAmericanmenandwomencametoregardserviceinthearmedforcesasaviablepathtowardsgreatersocialequality,andtheseviewsbecameespeciallypronouncedfollowingtheentryoftheUnitedStatesintothebloodybattlefieldsofWorldWarI.Hereagain,however,despitetheirhonorableandevenheroicservicetothenation,theverysameAfricanAmericanmenandwomenwereonceagainrelegatedtoasecond-classcitizenstatusoncethewarhadbeenwon(Enderetal.,2015).Thingsbegantochangeinmoresubstantiveways,though,duringandfollowingAmericasexistentialchallengesinWorldWarII.Forinstance,accordingtoEnderetal.,WorldWarIIfacilitatedacontinuedstruggleonthepartofAfrican-Americanstoserveinthemilitary,andtheydidsowithgallantry.Thateffortpropelledthemdemonstrativelyforwardinthestruggleforbothmilitaryandsocietalintegration(p.233).ThisparticularstrugglewasresolvedbyExecutiveOrderNo.9981promulgatedbyPresidentHarryS.Trumanin1948,whichdesegregatedmilitaryunitswhichwouldgoontofightthebattlesoftheKoreanandVietnamwars.Thesecontributionstothenationsdefenseandsecuritywereresponsible,atleastinpart,forthegrudgingacceptanceoftheCivilRightsActandsubsequentfederallegislationthatwasdesignedtoguaranteeAfrican-Americanstheirfundamentalconstitutionalcivilrights.InwhatcanberegardedasyetanotherhistoricturningpointforAfrican-Americansservingtheircountryinthemilitary,thepercentageofblacksinthearmedforcesremainedconsistentlyhighevenaftertheendofconscriptionandtheintroductionoftheAll-VolunteerForcein1973.Sincethattime,AfricanAmericanrepresentationintheU.S.armedforceshasconsistentlyoutpacedtheirrepresentationinthegeneralAmericanpopulation,atrendthatcontinuestothepresentday,atrendthatisexaminedinmoredepthinChapterFourwhichfollowsbelow.ThesetrendshaveremainedfairlyhighdespitetheendoftheAVFin1973,andAfricanAmericanrepresentationintheU.S.armedforceshasremainedhigherthantheircorrespondingrepresentationinthegeneralAmericanpopulation,arealitythatfurtherunderscorestheircommitmenttoservingandprotectingthenation.Notwithstandingthisextensivetrackrecordofmilitaryservice,thenumbersofAfrican-Americansenlistinginthearmedforceshasbeenonthedecline,mostnotablyintheU.S.ArmyandMarineCorps,atrendwhichbecameevidentfollowingthecessationofhostilitiesinthewarsinAfghanistanandIraq.ThedeclineinenlistmentsintheU.S.ArmyandMarinesisnoteworthybecausethesetwoservicesaretaskedwithexecutingthegroundcomponentofwarfareonland,makingthemtheindispensablebootsonthegroundthatarestillrequiredforconventionalwar.AlthoughtheserecentmodestdeclinesinenlistmentsinthesetwocriticalservicebrancheshassucceededinbringingtherepresentationofAfrican-AmericansmoreinlinewiththeiroverallrepresentationintheAmericanpopulation,theU.S.militarystillprovidesinvaluablecareeropportunitiesformanyAfrican-Americanswhomightnotbeabletosecurethesebenefitselsewhere(Segal&Thanner,2007).Inthisregard,Enderetal.concludethatWhiletheirnumbersarecurrentlymoreinlinewiththeirproportionalrepresentationinthelargersociety,previousrepresentationsuggestedbothatraditionofservice,patriotism,andprovidingtheAfrican-Americancommunitywithamajorpathtowardscareerdevelopmentnotfoundinthecivilianeconomy(p.233).Theseopportunities,however,arealsocharacterizedbythefactthatminoritiesingeneralandAfrican-Americans,inparticular,considerthemselvesfarmorelikelytobeassignedtohazardouscombatscenariossuchasthosewitnessedinKoreaandVietnam,aperceptionthatisfurtheraffectedbyongoingreportsofinstitutionalizedracisminthearmedforcesoverthepast30yearsorso(Enderetal.,2015).Notwithstandingthemultiplebenefitsthataccruetoindividualsthatserveinthearmedforces,thecombinedeffectsofthesenegativeperceptionsonthepartofmanyAfrican-Americansmayhelpexplainthecurrentdearthoftop-rankingblackleadersintheU.S.military.Asexaminedfurtherintheliteraturereviewthatfollowsimmediatelybelow,therehavebeensomeexceptions,mostnotablytheassignmentofretiredfour-starArmygeneralLloydAustinasthefirstAfricanAmericanSecretaryofDefense,butpromotionopportunitieshavebeenbleakforthevastmajorityofblackofficersinrecentyears.Forinstance,accordingtoBrook(2020),ThelackofBlackofficersintheArmyscombatcommandshasdiminishedthechancesfordiversityinmilitaryleadershipforyearstocome,resultinginanearlyall-whiteleadershipofanincreasinglydiversemilitaryandnation.TheArmy,thelargestofthearmedservices,hasmadelittleprogressinpromotingofficersofcolor,particularlyBlacksoldiers,tocommandsinthepastsixyears(para.4).Thisfailurehasmadesources,ofcourse,butmuchoftheblamehasbeenassignedtotheformerexecutiveadministration,whichmadeitapointtodefendtheuseofthenamesofConfederateheroesformajormilitarybasesintheUnitedStatesandreportedlyevendelayedthepromotionsoffemalestotherankofgeneralforfearofoffendingthepreviousresidentoftheOvalOfficewholackedanyformalmilitaryexperiencewhatsoever.Thisanti-militarystanceplacedafurtherdampeningeffectontheAfrican-Americans\'progressionduringthisadministration,buttheactualprocesshasbeenlongfeltbyactive-dutypersonnel.Forexample,Brook(2020)pointsoutthatBlackpeoplemakeup22.7%ofenlistedsoldiers,16.5%ofwarrantofficersand11%ofofficersonactivedutyasofJuly[2020].Attheofficerlevels,thisisadecreasefrom21%,18.4%and12.6%,respectively,in2010[and]thestakesoffairnessandequityaremanifest[aswellas]themilitary\'sabilitytodefendthenation(2020,para.6).ThepurposeofthisqualitativestudyconcernsthekeyreasonsbehindtheinordinaterepresentationratesofAfrican-AmericansinseniorleadershippositionsintheU.S.armedforcesatpresent.ProvidingaqualitativeanalysisexaminingthedifferencesbetweenAfrican-Americansandtheirarmedforcescounterpartswillhelpaddressthelackofdiversityinseniorleadershippositions.Aqualitativeliteraturereviewofpeer-reviewedandscholarlyresourcestogetherwithprimarydatadevelopedfromsemi-structuredinterviewsservedtoilluminatethemultiplebarriersprohibitingAfrican-Americansofficersfromreachingthoseseniorpositions.Finally,recommendationstodecreasetheracialimbalanceintheArmedForcesconcludethestudy.Thestudywasguidedbythefollowingresearchquestions:1.Howdoesmilitaryserviceaffectinterracialperceptionsandattitudes?2.WhathasbeenthehistoricroleofAfricanAmericansintheU.S.armedforcescomparedtotoday?3.WhatisthecurrentrepresentationofAfricanAmericansintopcommissionedleadershippositionscomparedtotheAmericanpopulationatlarge?4.Whatstepsarebeingtakentoaddressanyidentifieddisparitiesinrepresentationamonguppercommissionedleadershipechelons?SignificanceofthestudyManyofthesemorerecenteffortstoaddressdisparitiesintherepresentationofAfricanAmericancommissionedofficersinthetopleadershipechelonsofthearmedforceshaveserendipitouslycoincidedwiththenationsoutrageoverthemurderofGeorgeFloydatthehandsoflawenforcementauthorities,andthesechangesunderscoretheimportancethatovercomingracisminthemilitaryserviceshasassumedinrecentmonths.Indeed,inhistestimonybeforeaU.S.Congressionalcommittee,theChairmanoftheJointChiefsofStaffmadeitclearthatWemustthoughtfullyexamineourinstitutionandensureitisaplacewhereallAmericansseethemselvesrepresentedandhaveequalopportunitytosucceed,especiallyinleadershippositions(ascitedinBrook,2020,para.6).Insum,andtoparaphrasethecartooncharacterPogo,Wehavemettheenemy,andheisusforfartoomanyAfrican-AmericansintheU.S.militarytoday,buttheresearchwasconsistentinshowingthatthingsarechangingforthebetter,albeitatapainfullyslowpace.Insum,African-AmericansintheU.S.militaryhavefacedthedouble-whammyofinstitutionalizedracismcombinedwiththepoliticalturmoilthathasrockedthearmedforcesinrecentyears,andtheseissuesareexaminedfurtherbelow.ChapterTwo:ReviewofLiteratureAfricanAmericanslonghistoryofmilitaryservicehasbeenusedasapathtowardsgainingsocialequalityAlthoughthehistoryoftheUnitedStatesiscertainlynotuniquewithrespecttolongstandinginstitutionalpracticesandviewsthatarebasedonrace,thisnationdoesstandapartfromothersbyvirtueofhavingfoughtanenormousycostlyCivilWar,inpartinordertoendslaverybutalsotoeliminatethesedisparitiesforalltime.Indeed,theoriginalU.S.Constitutionissilentwithrespecttorace(notwithstandingtheso-calledthree-fifthsprovisionthatdoesnotspecifyrace),theThirteenthAmendment,whichoutlawedslavery(exceptforprisonersthatwereadjudicatedincourtsofcompetentjurisdiction)andtheFifteenthAmendment,whichreferstoraceandcolorinitsguaranteestotherighttovote.In1948,ExecutiveOrder9981desegregatedtheU.S.armedforces,andPresidentTrumanexpectedthemtoprovideequalopportunitiestoallservicepersonsasaresult.ThetextofExecutiveOrder9981specificallystatesinpartthatthereshallbeequalityoftreatmentandopportunityforallpersonsinthearmedforceswithoutregardtorace,color,religion,ornationalorigin(ExecutiveOrder9981,1948).Thisorderissuedthree-quartersofacenturyagohasnotbeenfullyimplementedbasedonthehistoriclevelsofAfrican-AmericansoccupyingpositionsoftopleadershipintheU.S.military.However,someservicebranchesbesidetheU.S.Armyhavebeenmoresuccessfulthanothersinachievingthisidealizedreality,butastheresearchthatfollowsbelowwillclearlydemonstrate,racially-basedobstaclesandchallengesstillconfrontAfrican-Americansateveryturnintheirmilitarycareersirrespectiveoftheirparticularbranchofservice.SomeindicationofthegrowingawarenessandthecorrespondingfrustrationsthatAfrican-AmericanshaveexperiencedinrecentyearscanbefoundinastudybyBriscoe(2013)thatnotes,\"TodaytheArmyisstrivingtomaintainthe[Truman]visionbyrecruitingandretaininganorganizationreflectiveofthecountry\'sdiversepopulation.However,Blackofficersareunderrepresentedinthecombatarms,specificallyintheInfantry,Armor,andFieldArtillerybranches(para.5).BecausetheU.S.ArmyandMarineCorpsprovidetheoverwhelmingmajorityofthegrouptroopsthatareneededtoprosecutelandwarfareandthefactthatisservinginacombatroleinoneofthesethreebrancheshavefacilitatedadvancementtoseniorleadershippositions,AfricanAmericanfaceyetanotherdoublewhammywhenitcomestogainingaccesstopromotionopportunities.Inthisregard,Briscoepointsoutthat,Thisunderrepresentationcanbetermedoccupationalsegregation.BlacksnonparticipationinthesecareerpathsdecreasesthediversityinthesebranchesandmakesitdifficultforBlackstoattainappropriaterepresentationamonggeneralofficers,asmorethan59%oftheArmysgeneralsareselectedfromthecombatarms(para.7).Inotherwords,thepathtoequalityunderthelawhasbeenarduousandlengthy,buttheproblemofracially-baseddisparitiesremainsfirmlyinplacethroughouttheUnitedStatestoday.Indeed,theresultsofastudybySegalandThanner(2007)showedthatevenpriortothemostrecentdampeningeffectsonpromotionsforminoritiesingeneralandAfricanAmericanwomeninparticular,therehadbeenvirtuallynoprogressinimprovingtherepresentationofblacksintheU.S.militaryinhigh-levelleadershippositions.Forinstance,accordingtoSegalandThanner(2007),SincethestartoftheAll-VolunteerForce[AVF]in1973,African-AmericanshaveservedintheU.S.military,especiallyintheArmy,innumbersgreaterthantheirpercentageofthepopulation.Thisdisproportionaterepresentationhasbeenevidentamongmilitarywomen(p.48).Asnotedabove,African-Americans\'enlistmentshavetaperedoffinrecentyears,buttherehavebeensomecorrespondingincreasesinHispanicenlistments\'accession.Notsurprisingly,perhaps,thisminoritygrouphasalsoexperiencedmanyofthesametypesofconstraintstotopmilitaryleadershippositionsastheirAfricanAmericancounterparts.Moreover,Hispanicwomenhavejoinedthearmedforcesatagreaterratethanmales,meaningthattheydidnotconstitutealargerpercentageofthewomenservingonactivedutythanHispanicmenduringaperiodinAmericanhistorywhenthisminoritygroupisbecomingthemajorityinmanypartsofthecountry(Segal&Thanner,2007).AfricanAmericansremainunderrepresentedintopcommissionedleadershippositionsbutpositivechangesarebeingmadetoaddressthesedisparitiesItisagainstthisbackdropthatrecentandcurrentinitiativesthatareintendedtoaddressthelongstandingproblemofdisparaterepresentationofAfrican-Americansintopmilitaryleadershippositionshavebeenimplementedandadministered,butallsuchinitiativeshavefacedmanyofthesameconstraintstoprogress(Segal&Thanner,2007).Forexample,nearlyaquarter-centuryago,theU.S.CongressestablishedtheMilitaryLeadershipDiversityCommissiontoexaminediversitylevelsinallmilitarybranchesofserviceandidentifyappropriatestrategiesforovercomingtheseconstraintstoparity.Oneofthemoreinterestingfindingsthatemergedfromthisinitiativewasthefactthateachoftheservicebrancheshasadifferentdefinitionof\"diversity,\"butmanyoftheotherfindingsandrecommendationsthattheCommissionpromulgatedweresimplyrehashesofformerlyidentifiedneeds.Inthisregard,onedisappointedobserverpointedoutthat,\"AccordingtoClarence\'C.J.\'Johnson,principaldirectoroftheofficeofdiversitymanagementandequalopportunityattheDepartmentofDefense,notmuchmorecanbeexpectedaftertwoyears,particularlyattheseniorlevels\"(Jones,2010,p.58).Intheirdefense,Jones(2010)doespointoutthateventhehigh-poweredMilitaryLeadershipDiversityCommissionwasunableratherthanunwillingtoremedysomeoftheproblemsthathavecontributedtothelongstandingmisrepresentationofAfrican-Americansintopmilitaryleadershiproles.Forinstance,Jones(2010)notesthatFirst,ittakes25yearstoadvancetotherankofgeneral.Butmoreimportantly,manyyoungAfrican-Americansdon\'tviewthemilitaryasalong-termcareergoal[and]focusondevelopingcareersinfouryearsthataremarketableontheoutside(p.59).AlthoughAfrican-Americansarecertainlynottheonlydemographicgroupthathasusedthispragmaticapproachtomilitaryservicetoadvancetheirprofessionalciviliancareers,thesetrendsunderscoretheprofoundchallengesfacedbyeachofthearmedforces\'branchesintheearly21stcentury.Itisalsowidelyrecognizedthatcertainoccupationswithineachservicebranchoffergreaterpromotionopportunitiestohigher-levelpositionsthanothers.Itislittlewonderthatmilitarycareer-mindedofficersofalldemographicgroupshavetakenadvantageofthesepathstopromotionwhenandwheretheyareavailable.Insomecases,however,African-Americanshavenotbeenabletogainaccesstothesamecareerladdersthatexistforwhiteofficersinthearmedforces.Inthisregard,Jones(2010)pointsoutthat,ThereisastrategicpaththatleadstohigherlevelsofthemilitaryinpositionsthatincludeAirForcepilot;infantry,battle-testedMarineandArmyofficers;andtacticaloperationsacrosstheboard--areasthatwomenandminoritiestendnottoselect(p.59).Nonetheless,eventheU.S.DepartmentofDefenserecognizedtheneedafterthecreationoftheMilitaryLeadershipDiversityCommissionandbeganwhatmaybeoneofthemoreimportantstrategiestohelpimprovetherepresentationofAfrican-Americansintopmilitaryleadershippositions.AsJonesemphasizes,Inadditiontoexploringwaystoexposemorewomenandminoritiestothosefields,Defenseisalsolookingatcivilianbusinessesandorganizationsforcluesabouthowtohelpthosedemographicgroupsadvance(2010,p.59).Intheirfinalreport,theMilitaryLeadershipDiversityCommissionclaimedthatitsfinalrecommendationsshouldseektoachievethreediscretebutinterrelatedgoalsasfollows:1.EstablishthefoundationforeffectivediversityleadershipwithadefinitionofdiversitythatiscongruentwiththeDepartmentofDefensescorevaluesandvisionofitsfuture;2.DevelopfutureleaderswhorepresentthefaceofAmericaandareabletoeffectivelyleadadiverseworkforcetomaximizemissioneffectiveness;and,3.ImplementpoliciesandpracticesthatwillmakeleadersaccountableforinstillingdiversityleadershipasacorecompetencyoftheArmedForces(Lyles,2011,p.8).ThecorevaluesandvisionoftheDepartmentofDefensewerecodifiedmostrecentlyonJuly24,1998,withthepublicationofitsHumanGoalsCharterwhichstates:Ournationwasfoundedontheprinciplethattheindividualhasinfinitedignityandworth.TheDepartmentofDefense,whichexiststokeeptheNationsecureandatpeace,mustalwaysbeguidedbythisprinciple.Inallthatwedo,wemustshowrespectfortheserviceman,theservicewoman,thecivilianemployee,andfamilymembers.ThedefenseoftheNationrequiresawell-trainedforce,militaryandcivilian,regularandreserve.Toprovidesuchaforce,wemustincreasetheattractivenessofacareerintheDepartmentofDefensesothatservicemembersandcivilianemployeeswillfeelthehighestprideinthemselves,theirwork,theirorganization,andtheirprofession.Inanefforttorealizethesecorevaluesandoverarchingvision,theDepartmentofDefensehastakenseveralstepstobothincreasetheavailablepoolofAfricanAmericancandidatesforthecommissionedofficerranksaswellasadotinginnovativepracticesthatarespecificallyintendedtofacilitatetheircareeradvancement(Lyles,2011).Mentoringinitiativesthatfacilitateandencourageinterracialunderstanding,appreciationandrespectWhileitistemptingtocharacterizesomeifnotmanyoftheabove-listedambitiousinitiativesasoverlybroadandunfocused(becausetheyare),theydoprovideausefulframeworkinwhichtomovethearmedforcesforwardtowardsthelong-termgoalofachievingdemographicparityforallservicemembersinthehigherechelonsofleadership,oneofthemorevaluablelessonslearnedfromthiscollaborationwiththeprivatesectorhasbeenthegrowingrecognitionconcerningthevalueofprovidingyoungAfricanAmericanofficerswithaseasonedmentorwhocanhelpthemavoidthepitfallsofmilitaryleadershipwhilesimultaneouslylearninghowtobecomethebestofficerspossible.Forexample,arecentcasestudyofanAfricanAmericancaptainconductedbyRandolphfoundthatMentoringisadevelopmentalrelationshipwhereexperiencesaresharedbetweentwopeople,onewithgreaterexperienceandonewithlesserexperience,basedonmutualtrustandrespect(2018,p.37).TheRandolph(2018)casestudy,though,alsofoundthatfewAfricanAmericanofficersareofferedmentoringopportunities,andwhentheydobecomeavailable,itisinaninformalfashionratherthanbeingformallyadministeredthroughtheArmyMentoringProgramdueinparttoalackofawarenessthatthisinitiativeisevenavailable.BesidesraisingawarenessofmentoringopportunitiesforAfrican-Americans,RandolphalsorecommendsthatArmydecision-makershavetakenintoaccountthemultipleringsinwhichmilitarymentoringingeneralandArmymentoring,inparticular,takesplaceassetforthinTable1below.Table1RingsinvolvedinmilitarymentoringRingDescriptionTheoreticalringThetheoreticalringconsistedofthreeparts:Experientiallearning,organizationaldesign,andmanagementtheory.ExperiencesasthekeycomponenttotheArmysandpractitionersdefinitionsofmentoringservedastheimpetusforexperientiallearningtheory(ELT)asthetheoreticalframework.IncludedunderthetheoreticalframeworkweretheArmyorganizationaldesignandmanagementtheories.BecausetheArmyespousesleadershipversusmanagement,andpromotesinteractionswithpeople,severaltheoristswereusedtodescribehowtheArmyoperates.PractitionerringThisringcoversthreebroadcategories:1)mentoringintheory,2)practice,and3)withmilitarypersonnel.Thephilosophyofmentoringhasagenerallyacceptedframeworktodescribethementoringparadigm:youth,academic,workplace,andreflectivephases.Academicmentoringhastwocorollariesusefulinexaminingthemilitarymentoringrelationship:1)theprofessor/studentmentoringrelationshipand2)andmentoringofminorityfacultybywhitefaculty.SocialringThemilitaryreflectsthelargersocietyfromwhichitisrecruited.SocietyhasthreeareasthatmayinfluencehowAfricanAmericanArmyofficersreceivementoring:1)mentoringdiversegroups,2)thequestforAfricanAmericanmentors,and3)mentoringAfricanAmericanmales.TheissueofmentoringAfricanAmericanmenisacomponentwithindiversegroups.AfricanAmericanmenfacesocialstigmas,transitionalconcernsandworkplacementoringissues.Finally,mentoringminoritiesinthemilitaryhastwoadditionalcomponents:1)generationaland2)diversity.WelldocumentedwithinsocietyandtheArmyarethechallengesofthegenerationgap.ThegenerationgapmayimpacthowMillennialgenerationofficersperceiveandreceivementoringwiththeadventofthesocialmediaageandthepossiblebenefitstominoritiesofanonymitythroughe-mentoring.MilitarymentoringringExploringmilitarymentoringprovidedacompositelookathowmentoringoccursacrossthemilitaryservices.Justaseachservicehasitsuniquestyleofuniforms,customs,andtraditions\',mentoringhasthesameuniqueness.AlthoughtheNavy,AirForce,andMarineshaveestablishedmandatorymentoringprogramsthroughproclamation.Thementoringofminoritieshowever,isaddressedasadiversityissueintheNavy,AirForce,andothergovernmentagencies.Infact,onlytheArmyMentoringProgramremainsseparateanddistinctfromtheArmyDiversityManagementProgram;nothinghaschangedintheArmytoexaminewhy.Howmentoringfordiversegroupsisaddressed,mayimpacttherecruitment,accessions,development,assessments,andretentionofminorityofficersfortheArmy,andaddressthediversityimbalanceintheArmyseniorofficerranks.ArmymentoringringTounderstandhowtheArmyemploysmentoring,requiresunderstandingtheroleofmentoringintheArmylearningandleadingframeworks,andinofficereducation.UnderstandingArmymentoringalsorequiresadeeperconceptoftheArmyMentoringProgram.TheArmyusesadomainsapproachinacquiringknowledgeandcreatingunderstanding.TheArmyLeaderDevelopmentModelconsistsofthreedomains:1)institutional,2)operational,and3)self-development.Eachdomainischaracterizedbythethreecomponentsfordevelopingleaders:1)training,2)education,and3)experience.Thedomainsoccurinadynamicenvironmentwithpeeranddevelopmentalrelationshipsassupport.Source:AdaptedfromRandolph,2018Privatesectorpractitionershavelongappreciatedtheimportanceofmentoringopportunitiesbasedinpartontheabove-describedelements.Theseprogramsaretypicallyimplementedearlyoninprospectiveleaderscareers.AsJones(2010)concludes,Ithinkmentoringisakeyfactorthatinfluences[military]careerchoices.Howyoutalktoandencouragepeopletoconsidersomeofthecriticalmilitaryoccupations.Thereisworktobedoneinthatregard,andwecontinuetolookatideasonhowtoinfluencethat(p.60).ThefactthattheU.S.Armyhasmadeacommitmenttoexamineitsapproachtominoritymentoringmustbeviewedasapositivestepintherightdirection,butRandolph(2018)alsomakesitclearthatthismilitarybranchhasalongwaytogotocatchupwithsomeoftheotherservicebranches.AlthoughmentoringlagsbehindtheotherservicebranchesintheU.S.Armyatpresent,itisclearthatithastakenmentoringseriouslyasapotentialpartialsolutiontoitspaucityofAfricanAmericanofficersinitsupperechelons.Likewise,someoftheotherarmedforcesbrancheshavealsomadementoringacornerstoneoftheireffortstoimproveAfricanAmericanofficers\'promotionrates.AgoodexampleofthiscanbeseenintheeffortsbytheU.S.CoastGuard,whichisfocusingoncreatingalong-lastingpipelineofAfricanAmericanofficercandidatesearlyonintheiracademiccareers,beginningatthemiddleandhighschoollevels,whichencourageparticipantstopursueSTEM-relatedcourseworkthatcanbenefitthemandthearmedforces.TheCoastGuardAcademysdiversityaffairsdirectoralsomakesthepointthatwhileitisimportanttoincreasethenumbersofeligiblecandidatesenteringthepipeline,itisalsoessentialtoprovidetheseparticipantswiththeongoingsupporttheyneedtosucceedinamilitarycareer(Jones,2010).Atthetimeofwriting,Jones(2010)reportsthatAfrican-Americansmakeupjust2.5%ofthestudentbodyandHispanicsaccountfor7%to8%[but]the2014incomingclassisitsmostdiversesince1999,with16African-Americansoutofaclassof290students(p.37).Whilethesepercentagesappeartorepresentrealprogress,itmustbenotedthat16African-Americansoutof290studentsisjust5.5%,comparedtotheircurrent12.6%representationinthelargerAmericanpopulation(Americanpeople,2021).Infact,theCoastGuardconcedesthateventhisprogressismodest.Still,theAcademysdiversityaffairsdirectoralsonotesthatthemostrecentcadreofminoritystudentsarebetterpreparedacademicallyfortherigorsofthecourseworkcomparedtopreviousclasses.Theyhaveenjoyedthebenefitsofacomprehensivepre-orientationmentoringprogram(forwhichtheyarriveoncampusearly)thatisspecificallyfocusedonprovidingthesefutureCoastGuardleaderswiththemoralsupporttheyneedasindividualsandagrouptosucceed[because]we\'renotjusttryingtochangethecrayonbox[but]wanttomakesurethey\'resuccessfuloncetheycomethroughthedoor\"(ascitedinJones,2010,p.38).Thesecombinedeffortshavealreadydemonstratedsomepositiveresults,withtheCoastGuardrecentlycelebratingthepromotionofthefirstAfricanAmericanflagofficertoreceivethreestarsaswellasitssecondfemalevicecommandantintheAcademyshistory.Moreover,minorityretentionratesintheCoastGuardareatunprecedentedlyhighlevelsandactuallyexceedmajorityretentionlevels,albeitonlyslightlyforofficers;however,representationratesforenlistedrankstelladifferentstory,withfully39.9%oftheCoastGuardenlistedranksbeingfilledbyminoritymembersandnearlyone-third(29.7%)females(Jones,2010).AlthoughnotasimpressiveastheCoastGuardsresultsinimprovingdiversityinitsranks,itssisterservice,theU.S.Navy,alsoreportsincreasingsuccessinitseffortstorecruitminoritiesandwomen.Forexample,JonescitedCaptainKenBarrett,headoftheNavysdiversityprogramming,asenthusingthat,Therehasbeenadramaticimprovementwithregardtowomen,whonowrepresentapproximatly15.3%ofitsforce.African-AmericansandHispanicsrepresent8.08%and6.22%oftheofficerranksand18.26%and17.21%ofenlistment,respectively(ascitedinJones,2010,p.38).ThesepercentagesarefarmoreinlinewithAfricanAmericanrepresentationinthelargerpopulation,buttheseresultsdidnotjustfalloutoftheskybutwererathertheresultofanongoingcommitmenttopromotingdiversityintheNavytodayandinthefuture.Inthisregard,BarrettaddsthatWehavediversityoutreachofficersinmajormarkets,andweaddedoutreachofficersinNewYork,Chicago,LosAngeles,Houston,andAtlanta.Wealsohavedonealottonetworkamongeducators,businessleaders,andgovernmentofficialstogettheNavymessageoutthereandaccessuntappedmarkets(ascitedinJones,2010,p38).Inotherwords,theU.S.NavyistakingstepstoactivelyreachouttoprospectiveAfrican-Americanswhomayhavenotseriouslyconsideredamilitarycareerinwaysthatotherservicebranchesarenot.Hereagain,aswell,theU.S.Navyhasborrowedsomeimportantguidancefromtheprivatesectorbyensuringthattheseofficercandidatesreceivethetypesandlevelsofmentoringsupporttheyneedtosucceed.Forinstance,Jonespointsoutthat,AlthoughtheNavyworkstoensurethatmembersofalldemographicgroupsreceivethesupportneededtoachievemajormilestonesandkeyassignmentsthatleadtofasterpromotions,thebranchalsohasmadeaspecialefforttoexposeracialandethnicminoritiestoserviceaffinitygroupsthroughwhichenlistedmenandwomencanmeetandbementoredbyseniorofficersfromsimilarbackgrounds(2010,p.38).Finally,theU.S.ArmyhasalsoimplementedanumberofnewstrategiesthathavebeenborrowedfromtheprivatesectortohelpeliminateknownobstaclestopromotionforAfrican-Americans,includingstoppingthepracticeofincludingphotographsofofficersintheirpersonnelfilestopreventpromotionboardsfromtakingraceintoaccount,evenunconsciously,duringtheirdeliberations.Likewise,thereareindicationsfromthefieldthatgrowingnumbersofAfricanAmericanofficersareselectingcombatassignmentswhichisaprovenpathtoachievingaccesstohigher-levelpositions.Whilethesepracticeshavebeenusedintheprivatesectorforyears,itisimportanttonotethatitisnevertoolatetoeliminatelongstandingbarrierstoprogress.Thematicanalysisofpeer-reviewedandscholarlystudiesconcerningAfricanAmericanrepresentationintheU.S.armedforcesInordertodeveloptimelyandinformedanswerstothestudysguidingresearchquestionsusingthequalitativemethoddescribedfurtherinchapterthreebelow,summariesofpeer-reviewedandscholarlystudiesarecodedinTable2below.Table2Keyfindingsfrompeer-reviewedandscholarlystudiesandcorrespondingthemesSourceKeyfindingsCommentsThematicCode(s)Shaffer(n.d.).Evenafterintegrationandthepassageofthe1964CivilRightsAct,lifeinanofficiallycolorblindmilitary(orcountry,forthatmatter)didnotanddoesnotguaranteeequabletreatmentbeforethelaw,whetherthatlawiscivilortheUniformCodeofMilitaryJustice.TheContinentalforceshadamixedrecordontheserviceofAfrican-Americans.ThemostintegratedservicewastheNavy,whichwelcomedAfrican-Americansailorswithopenarms.African-AmericanshavebeenpartofthenationalpoliticalstrugglesoftheUnitedStatessincebeforeindependence,evendespitethevexedrelationshiptotheidealsoflibertyandjusticeexperiencedbyboththeenslavedandfreeblackpopulations.1.AfricanAmericanslonghistoryofmilitaryservicehasbeenusedasapathtowardsgainingsocialequalityAdams(1997)Mentoringisapopularsubjectindiscussionsconcerningleadershipandprofessionaldevelopment;however,liketherestofsociety,minoritiesandwomeninthemilitaryaredisadvantagedinthesocializationprocess.Itappearstheyarenotprovidedtheproperguidanceandhands-onexperience,whichisnecessarytopracticeleadershipandimprovetheirskillsinthework-place.TheUSmilitaryhasfollowedthebusinesssectorandhasbeguntoaddresstheseproblemsbyinstitutingformalmentoringprograms.Theseprogramsarebasedonthepremisethatasuccessfulmentorshipbenefitsnotonlytheindividual,buttheorganizationaswell.Properlyimplementedandadministered,mentoringcanhaveapositiveeffectonindividualsandmilitaryorganizationsThiswasaseminalstudyofmentoringintheU.S.militaryinwhichtheauthorfirstmentionsthatthearmedforcesaretakinglessonsfromtheprivatesectorinitsmentoringinitiatives.3.AfricanAmericansremainunderrepresentedintopcommissionedleadershippositionsbutpositivechangesarebeingmadetoaddressthesedisparitiesBriscoe(2013)TheArmymustmanagediversitywhichrequiresmorethansimplysupplementinganoldsystemwithnewinitiatives.Itrequireschangingthesystemandmodifyingthecoreculture,whichincludesseniorleadersoversightoftheprofessionaldevelopmentprocesses.Thismeasureofperformancewillpromotediversityandfairnesswithintheranks.TheArmycannotsolvethisproblemonitsown.Seniorleadersmustalsoaggressivelypursuediversityamongthemostseniorranks.3.AfricanAmericansremainunderrepresentedintopcommissionedleadershippositionsbutpositivechangesarebeingmadetoaddressthesedisparitiesBonam&Nas(2018)WhiteswhencomparedtoAfrican-Americansdisplayedlesscriticalhistoricalknowledge,explainingtheirgreaterdenialofsystemicracism.Moreover,strongerracialidentityamongWhitespredictedgreatersystemicracismdenial.Differencesincriticalhistoricalknowledge(i.e.,knowledgeofpastracism)andmotivationtoprotectgroupesteempredictedpresent-dayracismperceptionsamongWhitesandBlacksattendingdifferent,raciallyhomogenousuniversities.4.Militaryservicefacilitatesandencouragesinterracialunderstanding,appreciationandrespectJones(2010)In2008,theU.S.CongressestablishedtheMilitaryLeadershipDiversityCommissionwhichwastaskedwithanalyzingthepromotionratesforminoritiesinthemilitaryandtodevelopstrategiestomakethearmedforcesmorereflectiveofthenation\'sdiversepopulation.TheCommissionsfinalreportincludedrecommendationsforincreasedrecruitingeffortsdirectedatAfrican-Americanstohelpbalancetheirrepresentationinthehigherranksofallofthemilitarybranches.Recruitingandretainingminorities,particularlyintheofficerranks,presentanongoingchallengeforeachmilitarybranch2.Themodernmilitaryisfundamentallyameritocracythatdefiesovertracism;and,3.AfricanAmericansremainunderrepresentedintopcommissionedleadershippositionsbutpositivechangesarebeingmadetoaddressthesedisparitiesRandolph(2018)MentoringoccursintheArmy,butnotthroughtheArmyMentoringProgram,becausefewofficersareregistered,use,orknowoftheprogram.Thosepatternswereparalleltothreeotherpatternsthatindicated:lostmentoringtimeforjuniorofficers,only1-5menteeexperiencesinanArmycareer,andanardentdesireformentoringrelationships.Basedontheresearchfindings,patternsidentified,andthemesdeveloped,mentoringmayhavegreaterimpactonAfricanAmericanArmyCaptainsuccessandpromotionpotentialwheninitiatedattheonsetofanofficerscareer.SubparpromotionratestoMajorforminorityandfemaleofficersisasystemicproblemspanningoverthelast40-plusyears,andwhatmaycontributetothediversityimbalanceatseniorArmyofficerlevels,requiresaholisticperformanceimprovementstrategy.3.AfricanAmericansremainunderrepresentedintopcommissionedleadershippositionsbutpositivechangesarebeingmadetoaddressthesedisparitiesJones(2010)Recruitingandretainingminorities,particularlyintheofficerranks,presentsanongoingchallengeforeachmilitarybranch.TheCoastGuardAcademy,however,ishopefulthatcommunityoutreachmayultimatelybethekeyandtheAirForceconcurs.ReachingouttounderrepresenteddemographicgroupsaroundthecountrytoeducatethemonAirForceopportunities,bothinuniformandascivilians,helpsyouthandtheirmentorsunderstandthebenefitofservingintheAirForceandmilitaryingeneral.TheAirForceiscommittedtobeingaleadingcompetitorinthewarfortalent.Overall,in2010,theU.S.AirForcewas7.04%Hispanic,12.7%AfricanAmerican,and19.4%female,withitsgreatestchallengeinattractingdiverseapplicantsattheofficerlevel.TheAirForcehasgreatdiversitywithintheenlistedranks.ThecompetitioniskeenwithcorporateAmerica,aswellasotherservicesforthesamegroupofhighlyqualifieddiversecollegegraduates.2.Themodernmilitaryisfundamentallyameritocracythatdefiesovertracism;and,3.AfricanAmericansremainunderrepresentedintopcommissionedleadershippositionsbutpositivechangesarebeingmadetoaddressthesedisparitiesMyers(2014)Agrowingbodyofscholarshipindicatesthatcivilrightsleadersratherthanprejudicedwhiteofficers,opposedtheideaofexpandingtheReserveOfficersTrainingCorps(ROTC)athistoricallyblackcollegesanduniversitiesbecausedoingsocouldreinforcesegregation.Instead,peoplewithintheDepartmentofDefenseworkedtoraisethenumberofAfrican-AmericansattendingtheserviceacadeiesandROTCprogramsatmultiracialschools.Aslongas50yearsago,militaryandcivilianofficialsexpressedgrowingconcernsoverthelackofcareerprogressionofblackofficers.2.Themodernmilitaryisfundamentallyameritocracythatdefiesovertracism;and,3.AfricanAmericansremainunderrepresentedintopcommissionedleadershippositionsbutpositivechangesarebeingmadetoaddressthesedisparitiesEnder,M.G.etal.(2015)African-AmericansintheU.S.militaryencompassatleasttwodistinctidentitygroups:aracialstatusassociatedwithlowersupportforthewarsinAfghanistanandIraq,andamilitarystatuswhichtendstobemore\'hawkish\'inperspective.Majoritiesofmilitarycadets,regardlessofrace,supportedbothofthesewarsmorethantheirciviliancounterparts,butAfrican-Americansaresignificantlylesssupportiveofthewarsrelativetotheirpeerswithineachgroup.African-Americancadetssupportbothwarslesssothanwhitesandcadetsofotherraces,butAfrican-AmericancadetssupportedbothwarsmorethanAfrican-Americancivilians.Itappearsthatracialandmilitaryaffiliationscombinetoyieldauniqueperspectiveonwar,adaptingelementsofbothstatuses.Thesefindingssupporttheconceptofintersectionality.AsEnderandhiscolleaguesconclude,SlaveryendsintheUnitedStatesfollowingtheAmericanCivilWar,whereAfrican-AmericansmadesignificantmilitarycontributionstotheNorthwinningthewar.Estimatesarethat200,000servedand27,000died[and]theirserviceshowedapropensitytofightforcountry(Enderetal.,2015,p.232).1.AfricanAmericanslonghistoryofmilitaryservicehasbeenusedasapathtowardsgainingsocialequality;and,4.Militaryservicefacilitatesandencouragesinterracialunderstanding,appreciationandrespect.Johnson(2008)Previousresearchsuggeststhatmentorrelationshipsarefacilitativeofcareersuccess,careersatisfaction,andretentioninorganizations.Yet,littleresearchhasbeendonetoexploretheprevalenceorfunctionofmentorrelationshipsinmilitarypopulations.Ofthe576third-yearmidshipmenattheU.S.NavalAcademy,just40%oftherespondentshaveeverexperiencedamentoringrelationship.Mostmentorswereseniormilitarypersonnel,and87%weremale.Mostrelationshipsweremutuallyinitiated,andtheytendedtolastforseveralyears.Althoughbothcareerandpsychosocialmentorfunctionswerepresentintheserelationships,psychosocialfunctionsweremostnotableandmosthighlycorrelatedwithpositiveappraisalsofmentorrelationships.Midshipmenviewedmentoringasextremelyimportantandratedtheirownmentorrelationshipsasextremelypositive.3.AfricanAmericansremainunderrepresentedintopcommissionedleadershippositionsbutpositivechangesarebeingmadetoaddressthesedisparities;and,4.Militaryservicefacilitatesandencouragesinterracialunderstanding,appreciationandrespectBryant(2009)Eveninthe21stcentury,theU.S.ArmysAfrican-Americanofficersarenotsufficientlymentored.Ournationhasexperiencedslavery,economicdepression,majorwarsandconflicts,racialoppression,andrecentglobalization;however,ourArmystillhasshortcomingsinmentorship,particularlyinthedevelopmentofAfrican-Americanofficers.Evenso,African-Americanofficerscontinuetoemergeasleaders,despitetheobstaclestheymustovercome.However,theseobstaclescouldbelessformidableifamentorshipprogramenabledthemtorealizetheirfullpotential.ForthisnationtocontinuetofieldadominantArmy,abettermentorshipprogrammustbebuilt.LackofpropermentorshipcouldadverselyaffectthecountrysnationalinterestsbydetractingfromU.S.militarydominance,reducingsecurity,andweakeningdiplomacy.African-Americanofficersmustproactivelyseekoutmentorsofanyrace.Seniormilitaryleaders,regardlessofrace,mustwelcometheopportunitytomentorAfrican-Americanofficers.Ournationexpectsitsmilitaryofficerstobecompetent,technicallyproficientandhighlytrainedprofessionalsintheirvariousmilitaryoccupationalspecialties.Therefore,mentorshipisvitalforallofficers,regardlessofrace.InordertogroomfutureAfrican-Americanofficers,wemustimplementnewandinnovativementoringprogramsinthe21stcentury3.AfricanAmericansremainunderrepresentedintopcommissionedleadershippositionsbutpositivechangesarebeingmadetoaddressthesedisparities;and,4.Militaryservicefacilitatesandencouragesinterracialunderstanding,appreciationandrespectSmith(2010)TheArmedForcesandtheArmyinparticular,havespentagreatdealofeconomicandintellectualcapitaltryingtounderstandBlackofficersatisfaction,career-relatedoutcomesandotherdiversity-relatedissues.SomeoftheinteresthascomebecauseoftherealizationthatBlackofficersseetheirworlddifferentlythanotherracialgroups.AnexampleofthiscomesfromtheDefenseManpowerDataCentersEqualOpportunitySurveyReport.TheprincipalinvestigatorsofthisreportfoundamongotherthingsthatBlacks(19%)weremorelikelythanWhites(4%),NativeAmericans/AlaskanNatives(8%),andHispanicsandAsians/PacificIslanders(13%,forboth)toindicateexperiencingatleastoneevaluationincident(e.g.,beingratedlowerthanexpectedonanevaluation)duringtheircareer.TheArmyhasrecognizedthefactthatthereisadearthofblackofficersatthegeneralofficerlevelsoftheorganizationandhasundertakenseveraldiversityinitiativestoaddresstheproblem.TheArmyhasneitherestablishedacentralizedDepartmentoftheArmydiversitystaffthatreportsdirectlytotheArmyLeadershipnorconsolidatedtheeffortsofotherassessments.ItseemsthattheArmyhasdoneagoodjobintermsincreatingthefoundationsforacomprehensivediversityplanbyestablishingdefinitionsandcreatingavisionbutithasfailedtofollowthroughbycreatinganexecutableplandesignedtoimplementenduringchange3.AfricanAmericansremainunderrepresentedintopcommissionedleadershippositionsbutpositivechangesarebeingmadetoaddressthesedisparitiesChapterThree:MethodsSocialscientistscanselectfromvariousresearchmethodologies,includingqualitativeandquantitativeparadigms(Neuman,2008).Ontheonehand,qualitativemethodologiessuchasreviewsoftherelevantliterature,focusgroups,participant-observations,structuredandsemi-structuredinterviews(Neuman,2008).Ontheotherhand,quantitativemethodssuchasquestionnairesandsurveysarecommonlyusedinquantitativeresearchmethods.Whilequantitativemethodshavelongbeenregardedasthegoldstandardforsocialresearchpurposes,thereisagrowingrecognitionthatproperlyperformed,qualitativeresearchstrategiesalsoprovidevaluableinsightsthatmightnotbeotherwisediscerniblefromastrictlyquantitativeanalysis(Neuman,2008).Therefore,thisstudyusedaqualitativedocumentanalysisresearchmethodtodeveloptimelyandinformedanswerstotheabove-statedresearchquestions.Inaddition,aqualitativemethodsapproachwasregardedasbeinghighlyappropriatefortheintersectionalanalysesofthesefindingsthatwereneededtodevelopinformedanswerstothestudysoverarchingpurpose,asstatedintheintroductorychapter,sinceitprovidesavaluablelivedexperiencesperspective.Forinstance,accordingtoFeaginandElias(2012),Anintersectionalanalysisisnecessaryforunderstandingthediverseexperiencesandpowerofdifferentracialgroups,includingtheeffectsofgender,classandotheroppression/inequalitywithinandamongdifferentgroupsofcolor(p.37).Likewise,Enderetal.(2015)emphasizethatItappearsthatracialandmilitaryaffiliationscombinetoyieldauniqueperspectiveonwar,adaptingelementsofbothstatuses[which]supporttheconceptofintersectionality(p.231).ResearchDesignAccordingtoNeuman(2008),aqualitativedocumentanalysisusesexistingtextualresourcesofvarioustypesthatcorrespondtotheresearchfocusofinterest.Inaddition,accordingtoonesocialscienceresearcher,Documentanalysisisaformofqualitativeresearchinwhichdocumentsareinterpretedbytheresearchertogivevoiceandmeaningaroundanassessmenttopic(Bowen,2009,p.27).Thisresearchdesignusedaspecificpopulationandsampletodevelopinformedandtimelyanswerstothestudysguidingresearchquestionswhicharedescribedbelow.PopulationandSampleThepopulationandsampleofinteresttothisstudyconsistedofthegeneralAmericanpopulationandthepercentagesofAfricanAmericansintopcommissionedofficerleadershippositionsintheU.S.armedforcesinrecentyearscomparedtothepresent.Inaddition,theDoDsOfficeforDiversity,EquityandInclusionalsoprovidesthefollowingbreakdownofoccupationsforcurrentactivedutyAfricanAmericanofficersinallservicebranchesassetforthinTable3below.Table3OccupationsofAfricanAmericanActiveDutyMaleandFemaleOfficersasof2021OfficeroccupationMaleFemaleTacticaloperationsofficers3,414573Healthcareofficers1,3551,926Supply,procurement&alliedofficers1,943789Engineering&Maintenanceofficers1,667499Administrators1,227921Intelligenceofficers952383Scientistsandprofessionals671353Non-occupatonalofficers586174Generalofficersandexecutives1053MeasureThedocumentaryanalysisthatwasappliedtotheliteraturereviewandotherexistingdatathatwasusedinthisstudyfollowedthestepsoutlinedbyCaulfield(2008)concerningoptimalstrategiesforanalyzingqualitativedatatoidentifykeyrecurringthemesusingthedatacollectionprocedureswhicharedescribedbelow.DataCollectionProceduresThedatausedtodevelopinformedandtimelyanswerstothestudysabove-mentionedresearchquestionswascollectedfromU.S.governmentWebsites,includingtheDepartmentsofDefenseandvariousmilitarybranchesandarchiveddocumentaryreports,analyses,whitepapersandsoforth.Further,peer-reviewedandotherscholarlysourceswerealsoreviewedandthemostrelevantdatawerecollectedforthethematicdataanalysis.Inaddition,recentmainstreammediareportsconcerningthekeyissuesofinteresttothisstudywerealsoincorporatedintothethematicdataanalysisasdescribedbelow.DataAnalysisThedatacollectedasdescribedabovewereanalyzedfollowingthestepsoutlinedbyCaulfield(2008)concerningoptimalstrategiesforcodingqualitativedataandidentifyingcorrespondingkeythemes.Inthisregard,Caulfield(2008)advisesthat,Thematicanalysisisamethodofanalyzingqualitativedata[which]isusuallyappliedtoasetoftexts.Theresearchercloselyexaminesthedatatoidentifycommonthemestopics,ideasandpatternsofmeaningthatcomeuprepeatedly(para.3).ThediscretestepsthatwerefollowedforthispurposeareoutlinedinTable4below.Table4CodingstepsusedtoidentifykeythemesinqualitativeresourcesStepDescriptionStep1:FamiliarizationThefirststepistogettoknowthecollecteddata.Itisimportanttogetathoroughoverviewofallthedatacollectedbeforeanalyzingindividualitems.Thismightinvolvetranscribingaudio,readingthroughthetextandtakinginitialnotes,andgenerallylookingthroughthedatatogetfamiliarwithit.Step2:CodingThenextstepiscodingthequalitativedata.Codingmeanshighlightingsectionsofthetextusuallyphrasesorsentencesandcomingupwithshorthandlabelsorcodestodescribetheircontent.Thesecodesallowresearcherstogainacondensedoverviewofthemainpointsandcommonmeaningsthatrecurthroughoutthedata.Step3:GeneratingthemesNext,lookoverthecreatedcodes,identifypatternsamongthem,andstartcomingupwiththemes.Themesaregenerallybroaderthancodes.Mostofthetime,researcherswillcombineseveralcodesintoasingletheme.Atthisstage,researchesmightdecidethatsomeofthecodesaretoovagueornotrelevantenough(forexample,becausetheydonotappearveryofteninthedata),sotheycanbediscarded.Othercodesmightbecomethemesintheirownright.Again,thisdecisionwillvaryaccordingtotheresearchobjective.Step4:ReviewingthemesThisstepisusedtoensurethatthethemesareusefulandaccuraterepresentationsofthedata.Here,researchersreturntothedatasetandcomparetheirthemesagainstittodetermineiftheyaremissinganythingandwhetherthesethemesarereallypresentinthedata.Step5:DefiningandnamingthemesThepenultimatestepinvolvesnaminganddefiningeachthethemes.Definingthemesinvolvesformulatingexactlywhatismeantbyeachthemeanddetermininghowithelpsunderstandthedata.Step6:WritingupThefinalstepiswritinguptheanalysisofthedata.Theuseoftheabove-describedstepstothequalitativedatacollectedfortheliteraturereviewinchapterthreeaboveresultedinthekeythemesoutlinedbelowwhichwereappliedtotheexcerpteddatainTable2above:1.AfricanAmericanslonghistoryofmilitaryservicehasbeenusedasapathtowardsgainingsocialequality2.Themodernmilitaryisfundamentallyameritocracythatdefiesovertracism3.AfricanAmericansremainunderrepresentedintopcommissionedleadershippositionsbutpositivechangesarebeingmadetoaddressthesedisparities4.Militaryservicefacilitatesandencouragesinterracialunderstanding,appreciationandrespectChapterFour:ResultsAsnotedinchapterthreeabove,althoughmultiplethemesandissueswereidentifiedduringtheliteraturereviewprocess,thekeythemesthatemergedwereasfollows:1.AfricanAmericanslonghistoryofmilitaryservicehasbeenusedasapathtowardsgainingsocialequality2.Themodernmilitaryisfundamentallyameritocracythatdefiesovertracism3.AfricanAmericansremainunderrepresentedintopcommissionedleadershippositionsbutpositivechangesarebeingmadetoaddressthesedisparities4.Militaryservicefacilitatesandencouragesinterracialunderstanding,appreciationandrespectThesekeythemeswereidentifiedinoneformoranotherinvirtuallyallofthereviewedqualitativeresearchandtherewereseveralinstancesinwhichmorethanonethemewasevident.Collectively,thesekeythemesemergedasthemainissuesthathavecharacterizedthelivedAfricanAmericanmilitaryexperiencetodate,butitisessentialtokeepinmindthateveryblackofficersindividualexperienceshavebeenuniqueinsomefashion.ItisalsoimportanttotakeintoaccounttheprofoundobstaclesandchallengesthatAfricanAmericanofficershavebeencompelledtoovercomejusttokeeppacewiththeirwhitecounterparts,anditisreasonabletopositthatmanyifnotmostofthemhaveworkedtwiceashardandaccomplishfarmoreduringtheirmilitarycareersthantheiractualrankindicates.TheresearchwasconsistentinshowingthatAfricanAmericanshavebeenservingintheU.S.armedforcessincecolonialdays,andthispatrioticservicewasperformedduringaperiodinthenationshistorywhentheywereexemptfromsuchobligations.Thisfindingreinforcesthefirstthemeidentifiedabovebutitalsounderscoresthemultiplereasons,someofwhichweremorepragmaticthanothers,forAfricanAmericansmilitaryserviceduringthefirst200yearsofthecountryshistory.ThefactthatAfricanAmericanscontinuedtoserveinthemilitaryduringthetwoworldwarsandKoreaalsomadeitclearthattheseservicememberswerewillingtolaydowntheirlivesforacountrythatstillpracticedwidespreadandlegitimatedracialsegregationanddiscrimination.ThesacrificesandserviceofAfricanAmericansintheU.S.military,though,alsohelpedtodispelmayoftheprevailingracialstereotypesthatpervadingthenationalconsciousnesswellintothe20thcentury,manyofwhichstillmanifestinuglywaystoday.TheresearchalsoshowedthattherearevastlymoreAfricanAmericangeneralofficerstodaythanatthestartofWorldWarIIwhenthefirstAfricanAmericanwaspromotedtotherankofbrigadiergeneralin1940,buttheresearchalsoshowedthattherepresentationofAfrican-Americansintheseloftyranksremainsmiserablylowtoday.Forexample,atpresent,thereare12four-stargeneralsintheU.S.armedforces;elevenarewhite,andoneisAfricanAmerican.Inaddition,therearealso45three-star(lieutenant)generals,with37whiteandeightblackofficers.Inaddition,therearealso105two-star(major)generals,with90whiteand15black.Ofthe125one-star(brigadier)generals(sonamedbecausetheyleadabrigadeinwartime),107arewhite,and19areblack.Likewise,ofthe231seniorfieldcommandpositions(colonelstypicallyleadbrigadesofabout4,000soldiersduringpeacetime),218arewhite,and13areblack(Brook,2020).Someindicationofthedisparitiesintheserespectiveratesofrepresentationcanbeseenwhentheyarecomparedtotheoverallrateof21.5%blacksand78.5%otherforallmembersoftheU.S.Army(Brook,2020).AninfographicprovidedbytheDepartmentofDefensesOfficeforDiversity,EquityandInclusion(2021)providesthemostrecentbreakdownofAfricanAmericanrepresentationinthearmedforcestoday,includingahistoriographicalanalysisdatingtotheU.S.CivilWarasshowninTable5below.Table5BreakdownofcurrentAfricanAmericanrepresentationintheU.S.armedforces(asof2021)ServicebranchCurrentnumbersofAfricanAmericansCommentsArmy102,13413.1%ofAfricanAmericancommissionedofficersaregraduatesofaserviceacademyAirForce48,937MarineCorps19,210Navy58,366Source:DepartmentofDefensesOfficeforDiversity,EquityandInclusion(2021)athttps://diversity.defense.gov/DE-I-Infographics/Demographic-Infographics/Behindthisstrictlyquantitativedata,though,existsawidearrayofviews,perceptions,beliefsandopinionsconcerninghowbesttoimprovetherepresentationratesforAfrican-AmericanswhoaspiretoaprofessionalcareerintheU.S.militaryasanofficerthatwereidentifiedinthethematicanalysisandwhicharediscussedfurtherintheconcludingchapterthatfollowsbelow.ChapterFive:Discussion,ConclusionandRecommendationsDiscussionTheresearchwasconsistentinshowingthatthingsarechangingforAfricanAmericanswhoareservingintheU.S.militarytoday,andtheyarechangingforthebetter.Theresearchalsoshowed,though,thatthereisstillalongwaytogowithrespecttoincreasingtherepresentationofAfrican-Americansinseniormilitaryleadershippositions.Oneofthemoreinterestingandchallengingfindingsthatemergedfromtheresearchconcernedjusthowlongittakestogroomnewofficersofanyraceandbackgroundfortopleadershippositions,andwhentherecruitmentpipelinerunslow,tingstakefarlonger.Nevertheless,therecentassignmentofGeneralLloydAustinasU.S.SecretaryofDefenseisreflectiveoftheseachangethatistakingplaceinthehigherechelonsofthefederalgovernment,andcurrentindicationssuggestthatthisissueisbeingtakenseriouslybythosewhoareinapositiontoactuallyeffectmeaningfulchangesintheU.S.armedforces.However,eradicatingthelingeringvestigesofinstitutionalizedracisminthearmedforcesisafarmorechallenginganddauntingenterprisesinceithasinsidiouslyinveigleditswayintomanyaspectsofmilitarydoctrinewithoutanyparticularconsciouseffortonthepartofthosewhowereresponsibleforthesepolicies.ThissametendencyhasbeenidentifiedintheprivatesectorwhereeventhemostpopularhumanresourcemanagementrecruitmenttoolsthatareusedintheU.S.canproducediscriminatoryresultswithoutanyconsciouseffortonthepartoftheirusers.Likewise,unconsciousracismisapervasiverealityinthemilitary,justasitisinthelargerAmericansociety.AppliedtotheU.S.armedforces,though,itisreasonabletopositthatunconsciousracismonthepartofwhitemilitaryleaderscanpreventordiscouragemanyAfrican-Americansfrompursuingaprofessionalcareerasamilitaryofficer.Whiletheidentifiedthemethatmilitaryservicefacilitatesandencouragesinterracialunderstanding,appreciationandrespect,therearestillsomepocketsofextremiststhatexistinthearmedforcesthattendtopaintthemilitaryserviceswithanoverlybroadbrush.GiventheirlonghistoryofintrepidandpatrioticservicetotheUnitedStates,failingtoprovideequitablecareeradvancementopportunitiesforAfrican-Americanstodayisnotonlyunjustifiable,itisawasteofpotentiallyinvaluablehumanresourcesthataredesperatelyneededinanincreasinglyhostileworld.ConclusionOneoftheunspokenbutpotentialpitfallsofattemptstodirectlyaddressthedisparateratesofrepresentationofAfrican-Americansinseniormilitaryleadershippositionsisthepossibilitythatsomeotherwise-qualifiedindividualsmaybepromotedtoorapidlywhilestilllackingthereal-worldfieldexperiencesthatareneededforthesetop-levelcommandpositions,especiallyintheU.S.ArmyandMarineCorpswhichareresponsibleforthegroundcomponentoflandwarfare.Indeed,theU.S.armedforcesareuniqueinAmericanculture,evendistinctforlawenforcementauthorities,intheirassignedresponsibilitiestoprojecttheU.S.mightabroadwhilealsodefendingthenationsdomesticsecurityinterestsfromattack.Thisisnottosay,ofcourse,thatmanyifnotmostjuniorAfricanAmericanofficerscannotrisetotheoccasion,butitistosaythatthedangerexistsiftheindividualswhoarerapidlypromotedinsometypeofaffirmativeactiontoachieveparitywiththeirwhitecounterpartsfailtoliveuptoexpectationsdueinparttoaconcomitantdearthofrelevantexperience,especiallyiftheyareservinginacombatroleandlivesarelostasaresult.Regardlessofthereasonsthatareinvolved,anysuchfailureswilllikelybeheldupasexamplesoffailedblackleadership,whichwillinevitablyhaveadampeningeffectontheirfutureopportunities.RecommendationsGroominganewgenerationofAfricanAmericanmilitaryleaderswillrequiretimeandlotsofit--butplentyoftimeisnotreallyaluxurythatthearmedforcesenjoyatpresent,andthisisthereforenotaviableoption.Certainly,someAfricanAmericanofficersarelikelydueforpromotionstohigherranks;butformany,thesepromotionsarealreadylongoverdue.Thestepsthatarecurrentlybeingtakenbythevariousmilitarybranchesrepresentastepintherightdirection,ofcourse,anditisreasonabletoconcludethatovertime,theseinitiativeswillhelpfueltheincreaseintherepresentationofAfrican-Americansinthetopleadershippositionsinallofthemilitarybranches,includingtheburgeoningU.S.SpaceForce.Intheinterim,though,therearesomestrategiesthatallofthebranchesofthearmedforcescantaketofacilitatetheprocessforminorityservicepersonsingeneralandAfrican-Americansinparticular.Forinstance,theresearchwasconsistentinshowingthattherearesomestrategiesthatcanfacilitatetheprocess,though,includingmostespeciallymentoringprogramsthatfeatureseasonedandexperiencedseniorAfricanAmericanofficerswhocanhelpnewblackofficersnavigatetherigorsofmilitarylifeaswellastheadverseeffectsofsystematicandinstitutionalizedracismthatcontinuetocharacterizetheU.S.armedforcesatpresent.Inaddition,itisalsorecommendedthattheU.S.Armyalignitsmentoringprogramswiththosethatarebeingusedtogoodeffectintheothermilitarybranches,mostnotablytheU.S.NavyandCoastGuard.Finally,thefactthatmilitaryservicetendstofacilitateandencourageinterracialunderstanding,appreciationandrespectmeansthatU.S.militaryorganizationsarebetterpositionedthantheirprivatesectorcounterpartsinovercominganyvestigesofinstitutionalizedorunconsciousprejudices,andAfricanAmericanslonghistoryofservingtheircountryinthemilitaryreinforcesthatneedtoprovidetheseandotherminoritieswithequitableopportunitiestojointheuppercommissionofficerleadershiprankstodayandinthefuture.ReferencesAdams,D.E.(1997,March).MentoringwomenandminorityofficersintheU.S.military.AirCommandandStaffCollegeMaxwellAFB,AL.Americanpeople.(2021).CIAworldfactbook.Retrievedfromhttps://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/#people-and-society.Bonam,C.M.&Nas,D.(2018,February16).Ignoringhistory,denyingracism:MountingevidencefortheMarleyHypothesisandepistemologiesofignorance.SocialScienceandPersonalityScience,10(2),257-265.Bowen,G.A.(2009).Documentanalysisasaqualitativeresearchmethod.QualitativeResearchJournal,9(2),27-40.Briscoe,D.L.(2013).TheBlackcommunityperspective:RecruitingBlacksintocombatarms.Philadelphia:U.S.ArmyWarCollege.Brook,T.V.(2020,September1).WherearetheBlackofficers?USArmyshowsdiversityinitsranksbutfewpromotionstothetop.USAToday.Retrievedfromhttps://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/politics/2020/09/01/military-diversity-army-shows-few-black-officers-top-leadership/3377371001/.Bryant,J.B.(2009).Mentorship:StrategicallylevelingtheplayingfieldforAfricanAmericanofficers.CarlisleBarracks,PA:U.S.ArmyWarCollege.Caulfield,J.(2020,August14).Howtodothematicanalysis.Scribbr.Retrievedfromhttps://www.scribbr.com/methodology/thematic-analysis/#:~:text=Thematic%20analysis%20is%20a%20method,meaning%20that%20come%20up%20repeatedly.&text=Reviewing%20themes,Defining%20and%20naming%20themes.Choi,D.(2021,February24).ATuskegeeheroandtheoldestlivingBlackWestPointgradreflectontheUSmilitaryanditsfirstBlackdefensesecretary.BusinessInsider.Retrievedfromhttps://www.businessinsider.com/black-military-veterans-lloyd-austin-2021-2.Cooper,H.(2020,May25).African-Americansarehighlyvisibleinthemilitary,butalmostinvisibleatthetop.TheNewYorkTimes.Retrievedfromhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/25/us/politics/military-minorities.Elkind,E.(2021,February24).Militaryneedshonestreckoningoverracisminitsranks.CBSNews.Retrievedfromhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/military-racism-black-veterans-project-service-members/.Ender,M.G.,Rohall,D.E.&Mathews,M.D.(2015,August).Intersectingidentities:Race,militaryaffiliation,andyouthattitudestowardswar.War&Society,34(3),230-245.ExecutiveOrder9981.(1948,July26).GeneralRecordsoftheUnitedStatesGovernment;RecordGroup11;NationalArchives.Feagin,J.&Elias,S.(2013).Rethinkingracialformationtheory:asystemicracismcritique.EthnicandRacialStudies,36(6),37-41.Introductiontodocumentanalysis.(2016,March9).ResearchMethodologyinEducation.Retrievedfromhttps://lled500.trubox.ca/2016/244.Johnson,W.B.(2008).MentoringexperiencesamongNavymidshipmen.MilitaryMedicine,196,27-34.Jones,J.(2010,November).Diversitycontinuestochallengethemilitary.BlackEnterprise,41(4),57-61.Kendrick,C.W.(1998).AfricanAmericanofficersroleinthefutureArmy.CarlisleBarracks,PA:U.S.WarCollege.Lyles,L.L.(20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