Helping Black Officers Achieve Their Full Potential in the U S Military Literature Review

AbstractNot only is the problem longstanding, it has been well documented time and again without any substantive progress. In fact, the representation of senior African Americans military leaders in the U.S. armed forces has remained essentially unchanged over the past half century despite purported efforts on the part of the U.S. government to effect meaningful changes in its personnel evaluation and promotion policies. Against this backdrop, it is vitally important to identify constraints to progress in order to develop and implement policies that can help address this challenging problem. To this end, the purpose of this mixed methods study was to identify the main reasons behind the inordinate representation rates of African Americans in senior leadership positions in the U.S. armed forces today in order to formulate appropriate and timely recommendations to address this constraint in the future.Table of ContentsAbstract ..Chapter One: Introduction ..Chapter Two: Review of Literature ..Chapter Three: Methods ..Chapter Four: Results ..Chapter Five: Discussion, Conclusion and Recommendations ..Why There are Few African-American Military Officers in Senior Leadership PositionsChapter One: IntroductionToday, of the approximately 1.3 million men and women on active duty in the U.S. armed forces, fully 43%, or about 560,000 individuals, are African Americans (Cooper, 2020). At present, however, there is a stark and persistent paucity of senior leaders among these African Americans servicepeople among the more than half million servicepersons in the military. Indeed, these disparate representation rates have remained stagnated for more than a half century with little or no substantive progress having been made in reducing these disparities. Although there are some encouraging signs emanating from the White House and Pentagon at present that promise to improve the promotion opportunities for African Americans to attain top leadership positions in the future, the process requires time and some observers suggest time is no longer a luxury that the U.S. armed forces enjoy.The purpose of this mixed methods study using a qualitative literature review and quantitative data concerning the key reasons behind the inordinate representation rates of African Americans in senior leadership positions in the U.S. armed forces at present. Providing a qualitative and quantitative analysis showing the differences in African Americans and their counter-parts, will be beneficial to address the lack of diversity in senior leadership positions. A qualitative literature review of peer-reviewed and scholarly resources together with a quantitative analysis of existing surveys will show what barriers are prohibiting African-Americans officers from reaching those senior positions. Finally, recommendations to decrease the racial imbalance in the Armed Forces will be identified.IntroductionThe experience of African Americans in the U.S. armed forces is inexorably tied to more than 350 years of slavery which began in the early 1600s and the Jim Crow era which resulted in a nadir in American racial relations during the early part of the 20th century (Kendrick, 1998). Despite these brutally challenging and dehumanizing experiences and the obstacles in their path to equality, African Americans have served with honor and distinction in every war that has been fought by the United States, including the Revolutionary War. In fact, according to Ender and his associates (2015), Indeed, a Black, 47-year-old, runaway slave named Crispus Attucks was the first American killed by a British soldier [...] in the course of events which would lead to independence in the United States (p. 231).One of the especially noteworthy aspects of this early commitment by African Americans to defend the United States is the fact that they were actually exempted from the U.S. Militia Act of 1792 which mandated involuntary military construction for all males, but which was subsequently interpreted to mean that these provisions did not…

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…AbstractNotonlyistheproblemlongstanding,ithasbeenwelldocumentedtimeandagainwithoutanysubstantiveprogress.Infact,therepresentationofseniorAfricanAmericansmilitaryleadersintheU.S.armedforceshasremainedessentiallyunchangedoverthepasthalfcenturydespitepurportedeffortsonthepartoftheU.S.governmenttoeffectmeaningfulchangesinitspersonnelevaluationandpromotionpolicies.Againstthisbackdrop,itisvitallyimportanttoidentifyconstraintstoprogressinordertodevelopandimplementpoliciesthatcanhelpaddressthischallengingproblem.Tothisend,thepurposeofthismixedmethodsstudywastoidentifythemainreasonsbehindtheinordinaterepresentationratesofAfricanAmericansinseniorleadershippositionsintheU.S.armedforcestodayinordertoformulateappropriateandtimelyrecommendationstoaddressthisconstraintinthefuture.TableofContentsAbstract..ChapterOne:Introduction..ChapterTwo:ReviewofLiterature..ChapterThree:Methods..ChapterFour:Results..ChapterFive:Discussion,ConclusionandRecommendations..WhyThereareFewAfrican-AmericanMilitaryOfficersinSeniorLeadershipPositionsChapterOne:IntroductionToday,oftheapproximately1.3millionmenandwomenonactivedutyintheU.S.armedforces,fully43%,orabout560,000individuals,areAfricanAmericans(Cooper,2020).Atpresent,however,thereisastarkandpersistentpaucityofseniorleadersamongtheseAfricanAmericansservicepeopleamongthemorethanhalfmillionservicepersonsinthemilitary.Indeed,thesedisparaterepresentationrateshaveremainedstagnatedformorethanahalfcenturywithlittleornosubstantiveprogresshavingbeenmadeinreducingthesedisparities.AlthoughtherearesomeencouragingsignsemanatingfromtheWhiteHouseandPentagonatpresentthatpromisetoimprovethepromotionopportunitiesforAfricanAmericanstoattaintopleadershippositionsinthefuture,theprocessrequirestimeandsomeobserverssuggesttimeisnolongeraluxurythattheU.S.armedforcesenjoy.ThepurposeofthismixedmethodsstudyusingaqualitativeliteraturereviewandquantitativedataconcerningthekeyreasonsbehindtheinordinaterepresentationratesofAfricanAmericansinseniorleadershippositionsintheU.S.armedforcesatpresent.ProvidingaqualitativeandquantitativeanalysisshowingthedifferencesinAfricanAmericansandtheircounter-parts,willbebeneficialtoaddressthelackofdiversityinseniorleadershippositions.Aqualitativeliteraturereviewofpeer-reviewedandscholarlyresourcestogetherwithaquantitativeanalysisofexistingsurveyswillshowwhatbarriersareprohibitingAfrican-Americansofficersfromreachingthoseseniorpositions.Finally,recommendationstodecreasetheracialimbalanceintheArmedForceswillbeidentified.IntroductionTheexperienceofAfricanAmericansintheU.S.armedforcesisinexorablytiedtomorethan350yearsofslaverywhichbeganintheearly1600sandtheJimCrowerawhichresultedinanadirinAmericanracialrelationsduringtheearlypartofthe20thcentury(Kendrick,1998).Despitethesebrutallychallenginganddehumanizingexperiencesandtheobstaclesintheirpathtoequality,AfricanAmericanshaveservedwithhonoranddistinctionineverywarthathasbeenfoughtbytheUnitedStates,includingtheRevolutionaryWar.Infact,accordingtoEnderandhisassociates(2015),Indeed,aBlack,47-year-old,runawayslavenamedCrispusAttuckswasthefirstAmericankilledbyaBritishsoldier[...]inthecourseofeventswhichwouldleadtoindependenceintheUnitedStates(p.231).OneoftheespeciallynoteworthyaspectsofthisearlycommitmentbyAfricanAmericanstodefendtheUnitedStatesisthefactthattheywereactuallyexemptedfromtheU.S.MilitiaActof1792whichmandatedinvoluntarymilitaryconstructionforallmales,butwhichwassubsequentlyinterpretedtomeanthattheseprovisionsdidnotapplytoblacks,freeorotherwise(Enderetal.,2015).Nevertheless,anddespitefightingagainstonewhitesupremacistgovernmentonbehalfofthesimilarlyconstitutedUnitedStatesandbeingtreatedfardifferentlyfromtheirwhitecounterparts,AfricanAmericanshavehistoricallyservedthecountryasmembersofthearmedforces.Inthisregard,Enderetal.(2015)pointoutthat,Yet,inthenewUnitedStates,African-Americanscontinedtoserveintimesofwarinparticular,intheWarof1812,andtheMexicanWarsbuttheirstatusassoldierwassecondclassatbest(p.231).Furthermore,anddespiteoffersoftheirfreedombytheembattledandstrugglingConfederacyiftheSouthprevailedintheCivilWar(anofferthatprofoundlycontradictedthefundamentalpreceptsuponwhichtheConfederacywasfounded),AfricanAmericansalsoplayedanimportantpartonwinningtheCivilWar.AsEnderandhiscolleaguesconclude,SlaveryendsintheUnitedStatesfollowingtheAmericanCivilWar,whereAfrican-AmericansmadesignificantmilitarycontributionstotheNorthwinningthewar.Estimatesarethat200,000servedand27,000died[and]theirserviceshowedapropensitytofightforcountry(2015,p.232).Itisalsoimportanttonotethatdespitebeingrelegatedtoasecond-classcitizenroleduringthelate19thcenturyandthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,AfricanAmericanscontinuedtheirtraditionofmilitaryservicetothecountryevenwhentheywerecompelledtoserveinsegregatedunits.Thesetrends,though,didhelptofurtherunderscoretheneedforseniorAfricanAmericanmilitaryleaderstocommandthesesegregatedunits,includingthefamedBuffalosoldiersintheIndianandSpanishAmericanWars.Consequently,HenryO.FlipperbecamethefirstAfricanAmericangraduatefromtheU.S.MilitaryAcademyatWestPointin1877asadirectresult,withanother24blacksgraduatingfromtheacademybythefindesicle(Enderetal.,2015).Althoughracerelationsremainedstrainedduringthefirstdecadesofthe20thcentury,growingnumbersofAfricanAmericanmenandwomencametoregardserviceinthearmedforcesasaviablepathtowardsgreatersocialequality,andtheseviewsbecameespeciallypronouncedfollowingtheentryoftheUnitedStatesintothebloodybattlefieldsofWorldWarI.Hereagain,however,despitetheirhonorableandevenheroicservicetothenation,theverysameAfricanAmericanmenandwomenwereonceagainrelegatedtoasecond-classcitizenstatusoncethewarhadbeenwon(Enderetal.,2015).Thingsbegantochangeinmoresubstantiveways,though,duringandfollowingAmericasexistentialchallengesinWorldWarII.Forinstance,accordingtoEnderetal.,WorldWarIIfacilitatedcontinuedstruggleonthepartofAfrican-Americanstoserveinthemilitaryandtheydidsowithgallantry.Thateffortpropelledthemdemonstrativelyforwardinthestruggleforbothmilitaryandsocietalintegration(p.233).ThisparticularstrugglewasresolvedbyExecutiveOrderNo.9981promulgatedbyPresidentHarryS.Trumanin1948whichdesegregatedmilitaryunitswhichwouldgoontofightthebattlesoftheKoreanandVietnamwars.Thesecontributionstothenationsdefenseandsecuritywereresponsible,atleastinpart,forthegrudgingacceptanceoftheCivilRightsActandsubsequentfederallegislationthatwasdesignedtoguaranteeAfricanAmericanstheirfundamentalconstitutionalcivilrights.InwhatcanberegardedasyetanotherhistoricturningpointforAfricanAmericansservingtheircountryinthemilitary,thepercentageofblacksinthearmedforcesremainedconsistentlyhighevenaftertheendofconscriptionandtheintroductionoftheAll-VolunteerForcein1973.Sincethattime,AfricanAmericanrepresentationintheU.S.armedforceshasconsistentlyoutpacedtheirrepresentationinthegeneralAmericanpopulation,atrendthatcontinuestothepresentday,atrendthatisexaminedinmoredepthinChapterFourwhichfollowsbelow.ThesetrendshaveremainedfairlyhighdespitetheendoftheAVFin1973,andAfricanAmericanrepresentationintheU.S.armedforceshasremainedhigherthantheircorrespondingrepresentationinthegeneralAmericanpopulation,arealitythatfurtherunderscorestheircommitmenttoservingandprotectingthenation.Notwithstandingthislengthytrackrecordofmilitaryservice,thenumbersofAfricanAmericansenlistinginthearmedforceshasbeenonthedecline,mostnotablyintheU.S.ArmyandMarineCorps,atrendwhichbecameevidentfollowingthecessationofhostilitiesinthewarsinAfghanistanandIraq.ThedeclineinenlistmentsintheU.S.ArmyandMarinesisnoteworthybecausethesetwoservicesaretaskedwithexecutingthegroundcomponentofwarfareonland,makingthemtheindispensablebootsonthegroundthatarestillrequiredforconventionalwar.AlthoughtheserecentmodestdeclinesinenlistmentsinthesetwocriticalservicebrancheshassucceededinbringingtherepresentationofAfricanAmericansmoreinlinewiththeiroverallrepresentationintheAmericanpopulation,theU.S.militarystillprovidesinvaluablecareeropportunitiesformanyAfricanAmericanswhomightnotbeabletosecurethesebenefitselsewhere(Segal&Thanner,2007).Inthisregard,Enderetal.concludethat,Whiletheirnumbersarecurrentlymoreinlinewiththeirproportionalrepresentationinthelargersociety,previousrepresentationsuggestedbothatraditionofserviceandpatriotism,andprovidingtheAfrican-Americancommunitywithamajorpathtowardscareerdevelopmentnotfoundinthecivilianeconomy(p.233).Theseopportunities,however,arealsocharacterizedbythefactthatminoritiesingeneralandAfricanAmericansinparticularconsiderthemselvesfarmorelikelytobeassignedtohazardouscombatscenariossuchasthosewitnessedinKoreaandVietnam,aperceptionthatisfurtheraffectedbyongoingreportsofinstitutionalizedracisminthearmedforcesoverthepast30yearsorso(Enderetal.,2015).Notwithstandingthemultiplebenefitsthataccruetoindividualsthatserveinthearmedforces,thecombinedeffectsofthesenegativeperceptionsonthepartofmanyAfricanAmericansmayhelpexplainthecurrentdearthoftop-rankingblackleadersintheU.S.military.Asexaminedfurtherintheliteraturereviewthatfollowsimmediatelybelow,therehavebeensomeexceptions,mostnotablytheassignmentofretiredfour-starArmygeneralLloydAustinasthefirstAfricanAmericanSecretaryofDefense,butpromotionopportunitieshavebeenbleakforthevastmajorityofblackofficersinrecentyears.Forinstance,accordingtoBrook(2020),ThelackofBlackofficersintheArmyscombatcommandshasdiminishedthechancesfordiversityinmilitaryleadershipforyearstocome,resultinginanearlyall-whiteleadershipofanincreasinglydiversemilitaryandnation.TheArmy,thelargestofthearmedservices,hasmadelittleprogressinpromotingofficersofcolor,particularlyBlacksoldiers,tocommandsinthepastsixyears(para.4).Thisfailurehasmadesources,ofcourse,butmuchoftheblamehasbeenassignedtotheformerexecutiveadministrationwhichmadeitapointtodefendtheuseofthenamesofConfederateheroesformajormilitarybasesintheUnitedStatesandreportedlyevendelayedthepromotionsoffemalestotherankofgeneralforfearofoffendingthepreviousresidentoftheOvalOfficewholackedanyformalmilitaryexperiencewhatsoever.Thisanti-militarystanceplacedafurtherdampeningeffectonthepromotionofAfricanAmericansduringthisadministration,buttheactualprocesshasbeenlongfeltbyactive-dutypersonnel.Forexample,Brook(2020)pointsoutthat,Blackpeoplemakeup22.7%ofenlistedsoldiers,16.5%ofwarrantofficersand11%ofofficersonactivedutyasofJuly[2020].Attheofficerlevels,thisisadecreasefrom21%,18.4%and12.6%,respectively,in2010[and]thestakesoffairnessandequityaremanifest[aswellas]themilitary\'sabilitytodefendthenation(2020,para.6).Insum,AfricanAmericansintheU.S.militaryhavefacedthedouble-whammyofinstitutionalizedracismcombinedwiththepoliticalturmoilthathasrockedthearmedforcesinrecentyears,andtheseissuesareexaminedfurtherbelow.ChapterTwo:ReviewofLiteratureAlthoughthehistoryoftheUnitedStatesiscertainlynotuniquewithrespecttolongstandinginstitutionalpracticesandviewsthatarebasedonrace,thisnationdoesstandapartfromothersbyvirtueofhavingfoughtanenormouslycostlyCivilWar,inpartinordertoendslaverybutalsotoeliminatethesedisparitiesforalltime.Indeed,theoriginalU.S.Constitutionissilentwithrespecttorace(notwithstandingso-calledthree-fifthsprovisionthatdoesnotspecifyrace),theThirteenthAmendmentwhichoutlawedslavery(exceptforprisonersthatwereadjudicatedincourtsofcompetentjurisdiction)andtheFifteenthAmendmentwhichreferstoraceandcolorinitsguaranteestotherighttovote.In1948,ExecutiveOrder9981desegregatedtheU.S.armedforces,andPresidentTrumanexpectedthemtoprovideequalopportunitiestoallservicepersonsasaresult.ThetextofExecutiveOrder9981specificallystatesinpartthatthereshallbeequalityoftreatmentandopportunityforallpersonsinthearmedforceswithoutregardtorace,color,religion,ornationalorigin(ExecutiveOrder9981,1948).Thisorder,issuedthree-quartersofacenturyago,hasnotbeenfullyimplementedbasedonthehistoriclevelsofAfricanAmericansoccupyingpositionsoftopleadershipintheU.S.military.SomeservicebranchesbesidestheU.S.Army,however,havebeenmoresuccessfulthanothersinachievingthisidealizedreality,butastheresearchthatfollowsbelowwillclearlydemonstrate,raciallybasedobstaclesandchallengesstillconfrontAfricanAmericansateveryturnintheirilitarycareersirrespectiveoftheirparticularbranchofservice.SomeindicationofthegrowingawarenessandthecorrespondingfrustrationsthathavebeenexperiencedbyAfricanAmericansinrecentyearscanbefoundinastudybyBriscoe(2013)thatnotes,TodaytheArmyisstrivingtomaintainthe[Truman]visionbyrecruitingandretaininganorganizationreflectiveofthecountrysdiversepopulation.However,BlackofficersareunderrepresentedinthecombatarmsspecificallyintheInfantry,Armor,andFieldArtillerybranches(para.5).BecausetheU.S.ArmyandMarineCorpsprovidetheoverwhelmingmajorityofthegrouptroopsthatareneededtoprosecutelandwarfareandthefactthatservinginacombatroleinoneofthesethreebrancheshavefacilitatedadvancementtoseniorleadershippositions,AfricanAmericanfaceyetanotherdoublewhammywhenitcomestogainingaccesstopromotionopportunities.Inthisregard,Briscoepointsoutthat,Thisunderrepresentationcanbetermedoccupationalsegregation.BlacksnonparticipationinthesecareerpathsdecreasesthediversityinthesebranchesandmakesitdifficultforBlackstoattainappropriaterepresentationamonggeneralofficers,asmorethan59%oftheArmysgeneralsareselectedfromthecombatarms(para.7).Inotherwords,thepathtoequalityunderthelawhasbeenarduousandlengthy,buttheproblemofraciallybaseddisparitiesremainsfirmlyinplacethroughouttheUnitedStatestoday.Indeed,theresultsofastudybySegalandThanner(2007)showedthatevenpriortothemostrecentdampeningeffectsonpromotionsforminoritiesingeneralandAfricanAmericanwomeninparticular,therehadbeenvirtuallynoprogressinimprovingtherepresentationofblacksintheU.S.militaryinhigh-levelleadershippositions.Forinstance,accordingtoSegalandThanner(2007),SincethestartoftheAll-VolunteerForce[AVF]in1973,AfricanAmericanshaveservedintheU.S.military,especiallyintheArmy,innumbersgreaterthantheirpercentofthepopulation.Thisdisproportionaterepresentationhasbeenespeciallyclearamongmilitarywomen(p.48).Asnotedabove,enlistmentsofAfricanAmericanshavetaperedoffinrecentyears,buttherehavebeensomecorrespondingincreasesintheaccessionofHispanicenlistments.Notsurprisingly,perhaps,thisminoritygrouphasalsoexperiencedmanyofthesametypesofconstraintstotopmilitaryleadershippositionsastheirAfricanAmericancounterparts.Moreover,Hispanicwomenhavejoinedthearmedforcesatagreaterratethanmales,meaningthattheynotconstitutealargerpercentageofthewomenservingonactivedutythanHispanicmenduringaperiodinAmericanhistorywhenthisminoritygroupisbecomingthemajorityinmanypartsofthecountry(Segal&Thanner,2007).ItisagainstthisbackdropthatrecentandcurrentinitiativesthatareintendedtoaddressthelongstandingproblemofdisparaterepresentationofAfricanAmericansintopmilitaryleadershippositionshavebeenimplementedandadministered,butallsuchinitiativeshavefacedmanyofthesameconstraintstoprogress(Segal&Thanner,2007).Forexample,nearlyaquartercenturyago,theU.S.CongressestablishedtheMilitaryLeadershipDiversityCommissiontoexaminediversitylevelsinallofthemilitarybranchesofserviceandtoidentifyappropriatestrategiesforovercomingtheseconstraintstoparity.Oneofthemoreinterestingfindingsthatemergedfromthisinitiativewasthefactthateachoftheservicebrancheshasadifferentdefinitionofdiversity,butmanyoftheotherfindingsandrecommendationsthatwerepromulgatedbytheCommissionweresimplyrehashesofformerlyidentifiedneeds.Inthisregard,onedisappointedobserverpointedoutthat,AccordingtoClarenceC.J.Johnson,principaldirectoroftheofficeofdiversitymanagementandequalopportunityattheDepartmentofDefense,notmuchmorecanbeexpectedaftertwoyears,particularlyattheseniorlevels(Jones,2010,p.58).Intheirdefense,Jones(2010)doespointoutthateventhehigh-poweredMilitaryLeadershipDiversityCommissionwasunableratherthanunwillingtoremedysomeoftheproblemsthathavecontributedtothelongstandingmisrepresentationofAfricanAmericansintopmilitaryleadershiproles.Forinstance,Jones(2010)notesthat,First,ittakes25yearstoadvancetotherankofgeneral.Butmoreimportantly,manyyoungAfricanAmericansdon\'tviewthemilitaryasalong-termcareergoal[and]focusondevelopingcareersinfouryearsthataremarketableontheoutside(p.59).AlthoughAfricanAmericansarecertainlynottheonlydemographicgroupthathasusedthispragmaticapproachtomilitaryservicetoadvancetheirprofessionalciviliancareers,thesetrendstounderscoretheprofoundchallengesthatarefacedbyeachofthebranchesofthearmedforcesintheearly21stcentury.Itisalsowidelyrecognizedthatcertainoccupationswithineachservicebranchoffergreaterpromotionopportunitiestohigher-levelpositionscomparedtoothers,anditislittlewonderthatmilitarycareer-mindedofficersofalldemographicgroupshavetakenadvantageofthesepathstopromotionwhenandwheretheyareavailable.Insomecases,however,AfricanAmericanshavenotbeabletogainaccesstothesamecareerladdersthatexistforwhiteofficersinthearmedforces.Inthisregard,Jones(2010)pointsoutthat,ThereisastrategicpaththatleadstohigherlevelsofthemilitaryinpositionsthatincludeAirForcepilot;infantry,battle-testedMarineandArmyofficers;andtacticaloperationsacrosstheboard--areasthatwomenandminoritiestendnottoselect(p.59).Nonetheless,eventheU.S.DepartmentofDefenserecognizedtheneedafterthecreationoftheMilitaryLeadershipDiversityCommissionandbeganwhatmaybeoneofthemoreimportantstrategiestohelpimprovetherepresentationofAfricanAmericansintopmilitaryleadershippositions.AsJonesemphasizes,Inadditiontoexploringwaystoexposemorewomenandminoritiestothosefields,Defenseisalsolookingatcivilianbusinessesandorganizationsforcluesabouthowtohelpthosedemographicgroupsadvance(2010,p.59).Intheirfinalreport,theMilitaryLeadershipDiversityCommissionclaimedthatitsfinalrecommendationsshouldseektoachievethreediscretebutinterrelatedgoalsasfollows:1.EstablishthefoundationforeffectivediversityleadershipwithadefinitionofdiversitythatiscongruentwiththeDepartmentofDefensescorevaluesandvisionofitsfuture;2.DevelopfutureleaderswhorepresentthefaceofAmericaandareabletoeffectivelyleadadiverseworkforcetomaximizemissioneffectiveness;and,3.ImplementpoliciesandpracticesthatwillmakeleadersaccountableforinstillingdiversityleadershipasacorecompetencyoftheArmedForces(Lyles,2011,p.8).ThecorevaluesandvisionoftheDepartmentofDefensewerecodifiedmostrecentlyonJuly24,1998withthepublicationofitsHumanGoalsCharterdepictedinFigure1below.Figure1.U.S.DepartmentofDefenseHumanGoalsCharter,July24,1998Source:Lyles,2011,p.28Thethreeoverarchinggoalslistedaboveweretobeguidedbythefollowingrecommendations:1.Definediversityforanewera;2.Buildthefoundationforchange;3.Ensureleadershipcommitmenttodiversity;4.Developfutureleaders;5.Increasethepoolofeligiblecandidates;6.Improveoutreachandrecruitingstrategies;7.Eliminatebarrierstocareeradvancement;8.Ensurecontinuedprogress;9.Realigntheorganizationalstructure;10.Instituteasystemofaccountability;11.Ensurethesuccessionofleaderscommittedtodiversity;12.Systematicallydevelopademographicallydiverseleadershipthatreflectsthepublicitservesandtheforcesitleads;13.Pursueabroaderapproachtodiversitythatincludestherangeofbackgrounds,skillsets,andpersonalattributesthatarenecessarytoenhancingmilitaryperformance.and,14.Developandimplementrobustpoliciesandstrategicmetrics(Lyles,2011,pp.16-19).Whileitistemptingtocharacterizesomeifnotmanyoftheabove-listedgoalsasoverlybroadandunfocused(becausetheyare),theydoprovideausefulframeworkinwhichtomovethearmedforcesforwardtowardsthelong-termgoalofachievedemographicparityforallservicemembersinthehigherechelonsofleadership.Indeed,oneofthemorevaluablelessonslearnedfromthiscollaborationwiththeprivatesectorhasbeenthegrowingrecognitionconcerningthevalueofprovidingyoungAfricanAmericanofficerswithaseasonedmentorwhocanhelpthemavoidthepitfallsofmilitaryleadershipwhilesimultaneouslylearninghowtobecomethebestofficerspossible.Forexample,arecentcasestudyofanAfricanAmericancaptainconductedbyRandolphfoundthat,Mentoringisadevelopmentalrelationshipwhereexperiencesaresharedbetweentwopeople,onewithgreaterexperienceandonewithlesserexperience,basedonmutualtrustandrespect(2018,p.37).TheRandolph(2018)casestudy,though,alsofoundthatfewAfricanAmericanofficersareofferedmentoringopportunitiesandwhentheydobecomeavailable,itisinaninformalfashionratherthanbeingformallyadministeredthroughtheArmyMentoringProgramdueinparttoalackofawarenessthatthisinitiativeisevenavailable.BesidesraisingawarenessofmentoringopportunitiesforAfricanAmericans,RandlphalsorecommendsthatArmydecisionmakerstakenintoaccountthemultipleringsinwhichmilitarymentoringingeneralandArmymentoringinparticulartakesplaceassetforthinTable1below.Table1RingsinvolvedinmilitarymentoringRingDescriptionTheoreticalringThetheoreticalringconsistedofthreeparts:Experientiallearning,organizationaldesign,andmanagementtheory.ExperiencesasthekeycomponenttotheArmysandpractitionersdefinitionsofmentoringservedastheimpetusforexperientiallearningtheory(ELT)asthetheoreticalframework.IncludedunderthetheoreticalframeworkweretheArmyorganizationaldesignandmanagementtheories.BecausetheArmyespousesleadershipversusmanagement,andpromotesinteractionswithpeople,severaltheoristswereusedtodescribehowtheArmyoperates.PractitionerringThisringcoversthreebroadcategories:1)mentoringintheory,2)practice,and3)withmilitarypersonnel.Thephilosophyofmentoringhasagenerallyacceptedframeworktodescribethementoringparadigm:youth,academic,workplace,andreflectivephases.Academicmentoringhastwocorollariesusefulinexaminingthemilitarymentoringrelationship:1)theprofessor/studentmentoringrelationshipand2)andmentoringofminorityfacultybywhitefaculty.SocialringThemilitaryreflectsthelargersocietyfromwhichitisrecruited.SocietyhasthreeareasthatmayinfluencehowAfricanAmericanArmyofficersreceivementoring:1)mentoringdiversegroups,2)thequestforAfricanAmericanmentors,and3)mentoringAfricanAmericanmales.TheissueofmentoringAfricanAmericanmenisacomponentwithindiversegroups.AfricanAmericanmenfacesocialstigmas,transitionalconcernsandworkplacementoringissues.Finally,mentoringminoritiesinthemilitaryhastwoadditionalcomponents:1)generationaland2)diversity.WelldocumentedwithinsocietyandtheArmyarethechallengesofthegenerationgap.ThegenerationgapmayimpacthowMillennialgenerationofficersperceiveandreceivementoringwiththeadventofthesocialmediaageandthepossiblebenefitstominoritiesofanonymitythroughe-mentoring.MilitarymentoringringExploringmilitarymentoringprovidedacompositelookathowmentoringoccursacrossthemilitaryservices.Justaseachservicehasitsuniquestyleofuniforms,customs,andtraditions\',mentoringhasthesameuniqueness.AlthoughtheNavy,AirForce,andMarineshaveestablishedmandatorymentoringprogramsthroughproclamation.Thementoringofminoritieshowever,isaddressedasadiversityissueintheNavy,AirForce,andothergovernmentagencies.Infact,onlytheArmyMentoringProgramremainsseparateanddistinctfromtheArmyDiversityManagementProgram,nothinghaschangedintheArmytoexaminewhy.Howmentoringfordiversegroupsisaddressed,mayimpacttherecruitment,accessions,development,assessments,andretentionofminorityofficersfortheArmy,andaddressthediversityimbalanceintheArmyseniorofficerranks.ArmymentoringringTounderstandhowtheArmyemploysmentoring,requiresunderstandingtheroleofmentoringintheArmylearningandleadingframeworks,andinofficereducation.UnderstandingArmymentoringalsorequiresadeeperconceptoftheArmyMentoringProgram.TheArmyusesadomainsapproachinacquiringknowledgeandcreatingunderstanding.TheArmyLeaderDevelopmentModelconsistsofthreedomains:1)institutional,2)operational,and3)self-development.Eachdomainischaracterizedbythethreecomponentsfordevelopingleaders:1)training,2)education,and3)experience.Thedomainsoccurinadynamicenvironmentwithpeeranddevelopmentalrelationshipsassupport.Source:AdaptedfromRandolph,2018Privatesectorpractitionershavelongappreciatedtheimportanceofmentoringopportunitiesbasedinpartontheabove-describedelements,however,andtheseprogramsaretypicallyimplementedearlyoninprospectiveleaderscareers.AsJones(2010)concludes,Ithinkmentoringisakeyfactorthatinfluences[military]careerchoices.Howyoutalktoandencouragepeopletoconsidersomeofthecriticalmilitaryoccupations.Thereisworktobedoneinthatregard,andwecontinuetolookatideasonhowtoinfluencethat(p.60).ThefactthattheU.S.Armyhasmadeacommitmenttoexamineitsapproachtominoritymentoringmustbeviewedasapositivestepintherightdirection,butRandolph(2018)alsomakesitclearthatthismilitarybranchhasalongwaytogotocatchupwithsomeoftheotherservicebranches.AlthoughmentoringlagsbehindtheotherservicebranchesintheU.S.Armyatpresent,itisclearthatithastakenmentoringseriouslyasapotentialpartialsolutiontoitspaucityofAfricanAmericanofficersinitsupperechelons.Likewise,someoftheotherarmedforcesbrancheshavealsomadementoringacornerstoneoftheireffortstoimprovethepromotionratesforAfricanAmericanofficers.AgoodexampleofthiscanbeseenintheeffortsbytheU.S.CoastGuardwhichisfocusingoncreatingalong-lastingpipelineofAfricanAmericanofficercandidatesearlyonintheiracademiccareers,beginningatthemiddleandhighschoollevels,whichencourageparticipantstopursueSTEM-relatedcourseworkthatcanbenefitthemandthearmedforces.TheCoastGuardAcademysdiversityaffairsdirectoralsomakesthepointthatwhileitisimportanttoincreasethenumbersofeligiblecandidatesenteringthepipeline,itisalsoessentialtoprovidetheseparticipantswiththeongoingsupporttheyneedtosucceedinamilitarycareer(Jones,2010).Atthetimeofwriting,Jones(2010)reportsthat,AfricanAmericansmakeupjust2.5%ofthestudentbodyandHispanicsaccountfor7%to8%[but]the2014incomingclassisitsmostdiversesince1999,with16AfricanAmericansoutofaclassof290students(p.37).Whilethesepercentagesappeartorepresentrealprogress,itmustbenotedthat16AfricanAmericansoutof290studentsisjust5.5%,comparedtotheircurrent12.6%representationinthelargerAmericanpopulation(Americanpeople,2021).Infact,theCoastGuardconcedesthateventhisprogressismodest,buttheAcademysdiversityaffairsdirectoralsonotesthatthemostrecentcadreofminoritystudentsarebetterpreparedacademicallyfortherigorsofthecourseworkcomparedtopreviousclasses,andtheyhaveenjoyedthebenefitsofacomprehensivepre-orientationmentoringprogram(forwhichtheyarriveoncampusearly)thatisspecificallyfocusedonprovidingthesefutureCoastGuardleaderswiththemoralsupporttheyneedasindividualsandagrouptosucceed[because]we\'renotjusttryingtochangethecrayonbox[but]wanttomakesurethey\'resuccessfuloncetheycomethroughthedoor\"(ascitedinJones,2010,p.38).Thesecombinedeffortshavealreadydemonstratedsomepositiveresults,withtheCoastGuardrecentlycelebratingthepromotionofthefirstAfricanAmericanflagofficertoreceivethreestarsaswellasitssecondfemalevicecommandantintheAcademyshistory.Moreover,minorityretentionratesintheCoastGuardareatunprecedentedhighlevels,andactuallyexceedmajorityretentionlevels,albeitonlyslightlyforofficers;however,representationratesforenlistedrankstelladifferentstory,withfully39.9%oftheCoastGuardenlistedranksbeingfilledbyminoritymembersandnearlyone-third(29.7%)females(Jones,2010).AlthoughnotasimpressiveastheCoastGuardsresultsinimprovingdiversityinitsranks,itssisterservice,theU.S.Navyalsoreportsincreasingsuccessinitseffortstorecruitminoritiesandwomen.Forexample,JonescitedCaptainKenBarrett,headoftheNavysdiversityprogramming,asenthusingthat,Therehasbeendramaticimprovementwithregardtowomen,whonowrepresentapproximately15.3%ofitsforce.AfricanAmericansandHispanicsrepresent8.08%and6.22%oftheofficerranksand18.26%and17.21%ofenlistment,respectively(ascitedinJones,2010,p.38).ThesepercentagesarefarmoreinlinewithAfricanAmericanrepresentationinthelargerpopulation,buttheseresultsdidnotjustfalloutoftheskybutwererathertheresultofanongoingcommitmenttopromotingdiversityintheNavytodayandinthefuture.Inthisregard,Barrettaddsthat,WehavediversityoutreachofficersinmajormarketsandweaddedoutreachofficersinNewYork,Chicago,LosAngeles,Houston,andAtlanta.Wealsohavedonealottonetworkamongeducators,businessleaders,andgovernmentofficialstogettheNavymessageoutthereandaccessuntappedmarkets(ascitedinJones,2010,p38).Inotherwords,theU.S.NavyistakingstepstoactivelyreachouttoprospectiveAfricanAmericanswhomayhavenotseriouslyconsideredamilitarycareerinwaysthatotherservicebranchesarenot.Hereagainaswell,theU.S.Navyhasborrowedsomeimportantguidancefromtheprivatesectorbyensuringthattheseofficercandidatesreceivethetypesandlevelsofmentoringsupporttheyneedtosucceed.Forinstance,Jonespointsoutthat,AlthoughtheNavyworkstoensurethatmembersofalldemographicgroupsreceivethesupportneededtoachievemajormilestonesandkeyassignmentsthatleadtofasterpromotions,thebranchalsohasmadeaspecialefforttoexposeracialandethnicminoritiestoserviceaffinitygroupsthroughwhichenlistedmenandwomencanmeetandbementoredbyseniorofficersfromsimilarbacgrounds(2010,p.38).Finally,theU.S.ArmyhasalsoimplementedanumberofnewstrategiesthathavebeenborrowedfromtheprivatesectortohelpeliminateknownobstaclestopromotionforAfricanAmericans,includingthestoppingthepracticeofincludingphotographsofofficersintheirpersonnelfilestopreventpromotionboardsfromtakingraceintoaccount,evenunconsciously,duringtheirdeliberations.Likewise,thereareindicationsfromthefieldthatgrowingnumbersofAfricanAmericanofficersareselectingcombatassignmentswhichisaprovenpathtoachievingaccesstohigherlevelpositions.Whilethesepracticeshavebeenusedintheprivatesectorforyears,itisimportanttonotethatitisnevertoolatetoeliminatelongstandingbarrierstoprogress.ManyofthesemorerecenteffortshaveserendipitouslycoincidedwiththenationsoutrageoverthemurderofGeorgeFloydatthehandsoflawenforcementauthorities,andthesechangesunderscoretheimportancethatovercomingracisminthemilitaryserviceshasassumedinrecentmonths.Indeed,inhistestimonybeforeaU.S.Congressionalcommittee,theChairmanoftheJointChiefsofStaffmadeitclearthat,WemustthoughtfullyexamineourinstitutionandensureitisaplacewhereallAmericansseethemselvesrepresentedandhaveequalopportunitytosucceed,especiallyinleadershippositions(ascitedinBrook,2020,para.6).Insum,andtoparaphrasethecartooncharacterPogo,WehavemettheenemyandheisusforfartoomanyAfricanAmericansintheU.S.militarytoday,buttheresearchwasconsistentinshowingthatthingsarechangingforthebetter,albeitatapainfullyslowpace.ChapterThree:Methods(Qualitative/Quantitative)Socialscientistscanselectfromawidearrayofresearchmethodologies,includingmosttypicallythequalitativeandquantitativeparadigms(Neuman,2008).Ontheonehand,qualitativemethodologiessuchasreviewsoftherelevantliterature,focusgroups,participant-observations,structuredandsemi-structuredinterviews(Neuman,2008).Ontheotherhand,quantitativemethodssuchasquestionnairesandsurveysarecommonlyusedquantitativeresearchmethods.Whilequantitativemethodshavelongbeenregardedasthegoldstandardforsocialresearchpurposes,thereisagrowingrecognitionthatbothresearchtraditionscanprovidevaluableinsightsthatmightnotbeotherwisediscernible(Neuman,2008).Therefore,thisstudyusedamixedmethodsresearchdesignthatdrewonbothqualitativeandquantitativeresources,withtheformerbeingcomprisedofasystematicreviewoftheliteratureandthelatterconsistingofon-pointstatisticaldataconcerningpastandcurrentrepresentationratesofAfricanAmericanseniormilitaryleadersandotherrelevantdemographicdata.Inaddition,amixedmethodsapproachwashighlyappropriatefortheintersectionalistanalysesofthesefindingsthatwereneededtodevelopinformedanswerstothestudysoverarchingpurposeasstatedintheintroductorychapter.Forinstance,accordingtoFeaginandElias(2012),Anintersectionalistanalysisisnecessaryforunderstandingthediverseexperiencesandpowerofdifferentracialgroups,includingtheeffectsofgender,classandotheroppression/inequalitywithinandamongdifferentgroupsofcolor(p.37).Likewise,Enderetal.(2015)emphasizethat,Itappearsthatracialandmilitaryaffiliationscombinetoyieldauniqueperspectiveonwar,adaptingelementsofbothstatuses[which]supporttheconceptofintersectionality(p.231).Theapplicationoftheabove-describedmixedmethodsdesigngeneratedthefollowingresults.ChapterFour:ResultsFromastrictlyquantitativeperspective,theresearchshowedthattherearevastlymoreAfricanAmericangeneralofficerstodaythanatthestartofWorldWarIIwhenthefirstAfricanAmericanwaspromotedtotherankofbrigadiergeneralin1940,buttheresearchalsoshowedthattherepresentationofAfricanAmericansintheseloftyranksremainsmiserablylowtoday.Forexample,atpresent,thereare12four-stargeneralsintheU.S.armedforces;elevenarewhiteandoneisAfricanAmerican.Inaddition,therearealso45three-star(lieutenant)generals,with37whiteandeightblackofficers.Inaddition,therearealso105two-star(major)generals,with90whiteand15black.Ofthe125one-star(brigadier)generals(sonamedbecausetheyleadabrigadeinwartime),107arewhiteand19areblack.Likewise,ofthe231seniorfieldcommandpositions(colonelstypicallyleadbrigadesofabout4,000soldiersduringpeacetime),218arewhiteand13areblack(Brook,2020).Someindicationofthedisparitiesintheserespectiveratesofrepresentationcanbeseenwhentheyarecomparedtotheoverallrateof21.5%blacksand78.5%otherforallmembersoftheU.S.Army(Brook,2020).AninfographicprovidedbytheDepartmentofDefensesOfficeforDiversity,EquityandInclusion(2021)providesthemostrecentbreakdownofAfricanAmericanrepresentationinthearmedforcestoday,includingahistoriographicalanalysisdatingtotheU.S.CivilWarasshowninFigure2below.Figure2.PortraitofAfricanAmericanActiveDutyServiceMembersasof2021Source:DepartmentofDefensesOfficeforDiversity,EquityandInclusion(2021)athttps://diversity.defense.gov/DE-I-Infographics/Demographic-Infographics/Inaddition,theDoDsOfficeforDiversity,EquityandInclusionalsoprovidesthefollowingbreakdownofoccupationsforcurrentactivedutyAfricanAmericanofficersinallservicebranchesassetforthinTable1below.Table1OccupationsofAfricanAmericanActiveDutyMaleandFemaleOfficersasof2021OfficeroccupationMaleFemaleTacticaloperationsofficers3,414573Healthcareofficers1,3551,926Supply,procurement&alliedofficers1,943789Engineering&Maintenanceofficers1,667499Administrators1,227921Intelligenceofficers952383Scientistsandprofessionals671353Non-occupationalofficers586174Generalofficersandexecutives1053Behindthisquantitativedata,though,existsawidearrayofviews,perceptions,beliefsandopinionsconcerninghowbesttoimprovetherepresentationratesforAfricanAmericanswhoaspiretoaprofessionalcareerintheU.S.militaryasanofficer,includingthosesetforthinTable2below.Table2Keyfindingsfrompeer-reviewedandscholarlystudiesSourceKeyfindingsCommentsShaffer(n.d.).Evenafterintegrationandthepassageofthe1964CivilRightsAct,lifeinanofficiallycolorblindmilitary(orcountry,forthatmatter)didnotanddoesnotguaranteeequabletreatmentbeforethelaw,whetherthatlawiscivilortheUniformCodeofMilitaryJustice.TheContinentalforceshadamixedrecordontheserviceofAfricanAmericans.ThemostintegratedservicewastheNavy,whichwelcomedAfrican-Americansailorswithopenarms.AfricanAmericanshavebeenpartofthenationalpoliticalstrugglesoftheUnitedStatessincebeforeindependence,evendespitethevexedrelationshiptotheidealsoflibertyandjusticeexperiencedbyboththeenslavedandfreeblackpopulations.Adams(1997)Mentoringisapopularsubjectindiscussionsconcerningleadershipandprofessionaldevelopment.However,liketherestofsociety,minoritiesandwomeninthemilitaryaredisadvantagedinthesocializationprocess.Itappearstheyarenotprovidedtheproperguidanceandhands-onexperience,whichisnecessarytopracticeleadershipandimprovetheirskillsintheworkplace.TheUSmilitaryhasfollowedthebusinesssectorandhasbeguntoaddresstheseproblemsbyinstitutingformalmentoringprograms.Theseprogramsarebasedonthepremisethatasuccessfulmentorshipbenefitsnotonlytheindividual,buttheorganizationaswell.Properlyimplementedandadministered,mentoringcanhaveapositiveeffectonindividualsandmilitaryorganizationsThiswasaseminalstudyofmentoringintheU.S.militaryinwhichtheauthorfirstmentionsthatthearmedforcesaretakinglessonsfromtheprivatesectorinitsmentoringinitiatives.Briscoe(2013)TheArmymustmanagediversitywhichrequiresmorethansimplysupplementingandoldsystemwithnewinitiatives.Itrequireschangingthesystemandmodifyingthecoreculture,whichincludesseniorleadersoversightoftheprofessionaldevelopmentprocesses.Thismeasureofperformancewillpromotediversityandfairnesswithintheranks.TheArmycannotsolvethisproblemonitsown.Seniorleadersmustalsoaggressivelypursuediversityamongthemostseniorranks.Bonam&Nas(2018)WhiteswhencomparedtoAfricanAmericansdisplayedlesscriticalhistoricalknowledge,explainingtheirgreaterdenialofsystemicracism.Moreover,strongerracialidentityamongWhitespredictedgreatersystemicracismdenial.Differencesincriticalhistoricalknowledge(i.e.,knowledgeofpastracism)andmotivationtoprotectgroupesteempredictedpresent-dayracismperceptionsamongWhitesandBlacksattendingdifferent,raciallyhomogenousuniversities.Jones(2010)In2008,theU.S.CongressestablishedtheMilitaryLeadershipDiversityCommissionwhichwastaskedwithanalyzingthepromotionratesforminoritiesinthemilitaryandtodevelopstrategiestomakethearmedforcesmorereflectiveofthenation\'sdiversepopulation.TheCommissionsfinalreportincludedrecommendationsforincreasedrecruitingeffortsdirectedatAfricaAmericanstohelpbalancetheirrepresentationinthehigherranksofallofthemilitarybranches.Recruitingandretainingminorities,particularlyintheofficerranks,presentanongoingchallengeforeachmilitarybranchRandolph(2018)MentoringoccursintheArmy,butnotthroughtheArmyMentoringProgram,becausefewofficersareregistered,use,orknowoftheprogram.Thosepatternswereparalleltothreeotherpatternsthatindicated:lostmentoringtimeforjuniorofficers,only1-5menteeexperiencesinanArmycareer,andanardentdesireformentoringrelationships.Basedontheresearchfindings,patternsidentified,andthemesdeveloped,mentoringmayhavegreaterimpactonAfricanAmericanArmyCaptainsuccessandpromotionpotentialwheninitiatedattheonsetofanofficerscareer.SubparpromotionratestoMajorforminorityandfemaleofficersisasystemicproblemspanningoverthelast40-plusyears,andwhatmaycontributetothediversityimbalanceatseniorArmyofficerlevels,requiresaholisticperformanceimprovementstrategy.Jones(2010)Recruitingandretainingminorities,particularlyintheofficerranks,presentsanongoingchallengeforeachmilitarybranch.TheCoastGuardAcademy,however,ishopefulthatcommunityoutreachmayultimatelybethekeyandtheAirForceconcurs.ReachingouttounderrepresenteddemographicgroupsaroundthecountrytoeducatethemonAirForceopportunities,bothinuniformandascivilians,helpsyouthandtheirmentorsunderstandthebenefitofservingintheAirForceandmilitaryingeneral.TheAirForceiscommittedtobeingaleadingcompetitorinthewarfortalent.Overall,in2010,theU.S.AirForcewas7.04%Hispanic,12.7%AfricanAmerican,and19.4%female,withitsgreatestchallengeinattractingdiverseapplicantsattheofficerlevel.TheAirForcehasgreatdiversitywithintheenlistedranks.ThecompetitioniskeenwithcorporateAmerica,aswellasotherservicesforthesamegroupofhighlyqualifieddiversecollegegraduates.Myers(2014)Agrowingbodyofscholarshipindicatesthatcivilrightsleadersratherthanprejudicedwhiteofficers,opposedtheideaofexpandingtheReserveOfficersTrainingCorps(ROTC)athistoricallyblackcollegesanduniversitiesbecausedoingsocouldreinforcesegregation.Instead,peoplewithintheDepartmentofDefenseworkedtoraisethenumberofAfricanAmericansattendingtheserviceacademiesandROTCprogramsatmultiracialschools.Aslongas50yearsago,militaryandcivilianofficialsexpressedgrowingconcernsoverthelackofcareerprogressionofblackofficers.Ender,M.G.etal.(2015)African-AmericansintheU.S.militaryencompassatleasttwodistinctidentitygroups:aracialstatusassociatedwithlowersupportforthewarsinAfghanistanandIraq,andamilitarystatuswhichtendstobemore\'hawkish\'inperspective.Majoritiesofmilitarycadets,regardlessofrace,supportedbothofthesewarsmorethantheirciviliancounterparts,butAfrican-Americansaresignificantlylesssupportiveofthewarsrelativetotheirpeerswithineachgroup.African-Americancadetssupportbothwarslesssothanwhitesandcadetsofotherraces,butAfrican-AmericancadetssupportedbothwarsmorethanAfrican-Americancivilians.Itappearsthatracialandmilitaryaffiliationscombinetoyieldauniqueperspectiveonwar,adaptingelementsofbothstatuses.Thesefindingssupporttheconceptofintersectionality.Johnson(2008)Previousresearchsuggeststhatmentorrelationshipsarefacilitativeofcareersuccess,careersatisfaction,andretentioninorganizations.Yet,littleresearchhasbeendonetoexploretheprevalenceorfunctionofmentorrelationshipsinmilitarypopulations.Ofthe576third-yearmidshipmenattheU.S.NavalAcademy,just40%oftherespondentshaveeverexperiencedamentoringrelationship.Mostmentorswereseniormilitarypersonnel,and87%weremale.Mostrelationshipsweremutuallyinitiated,andtheytendedtolastforseveralyears.Althoughbothcareerandpsychosocialmentorfunctionswerepresentintheserelationships,psychosocialfunctionsweremostnotableandmosthighlycorrelatedwithpositiveappraisalsofmentorrelationships.Midshipmenviewedmentoringasextremelyimportantandratedtheirownmentorrelationshipsasextremelypositive.Bryant(2009)Eveninthe21stcentury,theU.S.ArmysAfrican-Americanofficersarenotsufficientlymentored.Ournationhasexperiencedslavery,economicdepression,majorwarsandconflicts,racialoppression,andrecentglobalization;however,ourArmystillhasshortcomingsinmentorship,particularlyinthedevelopmentofAfrican-Americanofficers.Evenso,African-Americanofficerscontinuetoemergeasleaders,despitetheobstaclestheymustovercome.However,theseobstaclescouldbelessformidableifamentorshipprogramenabledthemtorealizetheirfullpotential.ForthisnationtocontinuetofieldadominantArmy,abettermentorshipprogrammustbebuilt.Lackofpropermentorshipcouldadverselyaffectournationsnationalinterestsbydetractingfromourmilitarydominance,reducingoursecurity,andweakeningourdiplomacy.African-Americanofficersmustproactivelyseekoutmentorsofanyrace.Seniormilitaryleaders,regardlessofrace,mustwelcometheopportunitytomentorAfrican-Americanofficers.Ournationexpectsitsmilitaryofficerstobecompetent,technicallyproficientandhighlytrainedprofessionalsintheirvariousmilitaryoccupationalspecialties.Therefore,mentorshipisvitalforallofficers,regardlessofrace.InordertogroomfutureAfrican-Americanofficers,wemustimplementnewandinnovativementoringprogramsinthe21stcenturySmith(2010)TheArmedForcesandtheArmyinparticularhavespentagreatdealofeconomicandintellectualcapitaltryingtounderstandBlackofficersatisfaction,careerrelatedoutcomesandotherdiversityrelatedissues.SomeoftheinteresthavecomebecauseoftherealizationthatBlackofficersseetheirworlddifferentlythanotherracialgroups.AnexampleofthiscomesfromtheDefenseManpowerDataCentersEqualOpportunitySurveyReport.TheprincipalinvestigatorsofthisreportfoundamongotherthingsthatBlacks(19%)weremorelikelythanWhites(4%),NativeAmericans/AlaskanNatives(8%),andHispanicsandAsians/PacificIslanders(13%,forboth)toindicateexperiencingatleastoneevaluationincident(e.g.,beingratedlowerthanexpectedonanevaluation)duringtheircareer.TheArmyhasrecognizedthefactthatthereisadearthofblackofficersatthegeneralofficerlevelsoftheorganizationandhasundertakenseveraldiversityinitiativestoaddresstheproblem.TheArmyhasneitherestablishedacentralizedDepartmentoftheArmydiversitystaffthatreportsdirectlytotheArmyLeadershipnorconsolidatedtheeffortsofotherassessments.ItseemsthattheArmyhasdoneagoodjobintermsincreatingthefoundationsforacomprehensivediversityplanbyestablishingdefinitionsandcreatingavisionbutithasfailedtofollowthroughbycreatinganexecutableplandesignedtoimplementenduringchangeChapterFive:Discussion,ConclusionandRecommendationsDiscussionThingsarechanging,andtheyarechangingforthebetterbutthereisstillalongwaytogowithrespecttoincreasingtherepresentationofAfricanAmericansinseniormilitaryleadershippositions.Oneofthemoreinterestingandchallengingfindingsthatemergedfromtheresearchconcernedjusthowlongittakestogroomnewofficersfortopleadershippositions,andwhentherecruitmentpipelinerunslow,thingstakefarlonger.Nevertheless,therecentassignmentGeneralLloydAustinasU.S.SecretaryofDefenseisreflectiveoftheseachangethatistakingplaceinthehigherechelonsofthefederalgovernment,andcurrentindicationssuggestthatthisissueisbeingtakenseriouslybythosewhoareinapositiontoactuallyeffectmeaningfulchangesintheU.S.armedforces.Eradicatingthelingeringvestigesofinstitutionalizedracisminthearmedforces,however,isafarmorechallengingenterprisesinceithasinsidiouslyinveigleditswayintomanyaspectsofmilitarydoctrinewithoutanyparticularconsciouseffortonthepartofthosewhowereresponsibleforthesepolicies.Unconsciousracismisapervasiverealityinthemilitary,justasitisinthelargerAmericansociety.AppliedtotheU.S.armedforces,though,itisreasonabletopositthatunconsciousracismonthepartofwhitemilitaryleaderscanandhaspreventedordiscouragedmanyAfricanAmericansfrompursuingaprofessionalcareerasamilitaryofficer.GiventheirlonghistoryofintrepidandpatrioticservicetotheUnitedStates,failingtoprovideequitablecareeradvancementopportunitiesforAfricanAmericanstodayisnotonlyunjustifiable,itisawasteofpotentiallyinvaluablehumanresourcesthataredesperatelyneededinanincreasinglyhostileworld.ConclusionOneoftheunspokenbutpotentialpitfallsofattemptstodirectlyaddressthedisparateratesofrepresentationofAfricanAmericansinseniormilitaryleadershippositionsisthepossibilitythatsomeotherwise-qualifiedindividualsmaybepromotedtoorapidlywhilestilllackingthereal-worldfieldexperiencesthatareneededforthesetop-levelcommandpositions,especiallyintheU.S.ArmyandMarineCorpswhichareresponsibleforhegroundcomponentoflandwarfare.Indeed,theU.S.armedforcesareuniqueinAmericanculture,evendistinctforlawenforcementauthorities,intheirassignedresponsibilitiestoprojectU.S.mightabroadwhilealsodefendingthenationsdomesticsecurityinterestsfromattack.Thisisnottosay,ofcourse,thatmanyifnotmostjuniorAfricanAmericanofficerscannotrisetotheoccasion,butitistosaythatthedangerexistsiftheindividualswhoarerapidlypromotedinsometypeofaffirmativeactiontoachieveparitywiththeirwhitecounterpartsfailtoliveuptoexpectationsdueinparttoaconcomitantdearthofrelevantexperience,especiallyiftheyareservinginacombatroleandlivesarelostasaresult.Regardlessofthereasonsthatareinvolved,anysuchfailureswilllikelybeheldupasexamplesoffailedblackleadershipwhichwillinevitablyhaveadampeningeffectontheirfutureopportunities.RecommendationsGroominganewgenerationofAfricanAmericanmilitaryleaderswillrequiretime,andlotsofit--butplentyoftimeisnotreallyaluxurythatthearmedforcesenjoyatpresentandthisisthereforenotaviableoption.Certainly,therearelikelysomeAfricanAmericanofficersthatarenotonlyduelegitimatepromotionstohigherranks,thesepromotionsarelongoverdueformany.Thestepsthatarecurrentlybeingtakenbythevariousmilitarybranchesrepresentastepintherightdirection,ofcourse,anditisreasonabletoconcludethatovertime,theseinitiativeswillhelpfueltheincreaseintherepresentationofAfricanAmericansinthetopleadershippositionsinallofthemilitarybranches,includingtheburgeoningU.S.SpaceForce.Intheinterim,though,therearesomestrategiesthatallofthebranchesofthearmedforcescantaketofacilitatetheprocessforminorityservicepersonsingeneralandAfricanAmericansinparticular.Forinstance,theresearchwasconsistentinshowingthattherearesomestrategiesthatcanfacilitatetheprocess,though,includingmostespeciallymentoringprogramsthatfeatureseasonedandexperiencedseniorAfricanAmericanofficerswhocanhelpnewblackofficersnavigatetherigorsofmilitarylifeaswellastheadverseeffectsofsystematicandinstitutionalizedracismthatcontinuetocharacterizetheU.S.armedforcesatpresent.Inaddition,itisalsorecommendedthattheU.S.Armyalignitsmentoringprogramswiththosethatarebeingusedtogoodeffectintheothermilitarybranches,mostnotablytheU.S.NavyandCoastGuard.ReferencesAdams,D.E.(1997,March).MentoringwomenandminorityofficersintheU.S.military.AirCommandandStaffCollegeMaxwellAFB,AL.Americanpeople.(2021).CIAworldfactbook.Retrievedfromhttps://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-states/#people-and-society.Bonam,C.M.&Nas,D.(2018,February16).Ignoringhistory,denyingracism:MountingevidencefortheMarleyHypothesisandepistemologiesofignorance.SocialScienceandPersonalityScience,10(2),257-265.Briscoe,D.L.(2013).TheBlackcommunityperspective:RecruitingBlacksintocombatarms.Philadelphia:U.S.ArmyWarCollege.Brook,T.V.(2020,September1).WherearetheBlackofficers?USArmyshowsdiversityinitsranksbutfewpromotionstothetop.USAToday.Retrievedfromhttps://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/politics/2020/09/01/military-diversity-army-shows-few-black-officers-top-leadership/3377371001/.Bryant,J.B.(2009).Mentorship:StrategicallylevelingtheplayingfieldforAfricanAmericanofficers.CarlisleBarracks,PA:U.S.ArmyWarCollege.Choi,D.(2021,February24).ATuskegeeheroandtheoldestlivingBlackWestPointgradreflectontheUSmilitaryanditsfirstBlackdefensesecretary.BusinessInsider.Retrievedfromhttps://www.businessinsider.com/black-military-veterans-lloyd-austin-2021-2.Cooper,H.(2020,May25).AfricanAmericansarehighlyvisibleinthemilitary,butalmostinvisibleatthetop.TheNewYorkTimes.Retrievedfromhttps://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/25/us/politics/military-minorities.Elkind,E.(2021,February24).Militaryneedshonestreckoningoverracisminitsranks.CBSNews.Retrievedfromhttps://www.cbsnews.com/news/military-racism-black-veterans-project-service-members/.Ender,M.G.,Rohall,D.E.&Mathews,M.D.(2015,August).Intersectingidentities:Race,militaryaffiliation,andyouthattitudestowardswar.War&Society,34(3),230-245.ExecutiveOrder9981.(1948,July26).GeneralRecordsoftheUnitedStatesGovernment;RecordGroup11;NationalArchives.Feagin,J.&Elias,S.(2013).Rethinkingracialformationtheory:asystemicracismcritique.EthnicandRacialStudies,36(6),37-41.Johnson,W.B.(2008).MentoringexperiencesamongNavymidshipmen.MilitaryMedicine,196,27-34.Jones,J.(2010,November).Diversitycontinuestochallengethemilitary.BlackEnterprise,41(4),57-61.Kendrick,C.W.(1998).AfricanAmericanofficersroleinthefutureArmy.CarlisleBarracks,PA:U.S.WarCollege.Lyles,L.L.(2011).Fromrepresentationtoinclusion:Diversityleadershipforthe21stcenturymilitaryfinalreport.Arlington,VA:MilitaryLeadershipDiversityCommission.Neuman,W.L.(2008).Socialresearchmethods:Qualitativeandquantitativeapproaches.NewYork:Allyn&Bacon.Randolph,B.(2018,April).MentoringandAfricanAmericanArmycaptainsuccess:Acasestudy.SchoolofAdvancedStudies,DoctorofManagementinOrganizationalLeadership.Segal,M.W.&Thanner,M.H.(2007).HispanicandAfricanAmericanmenandwomenintheU.S.military:Trendsinrepresentation.Race,Gender&Class,14(3/4),48-64.Shaffer,J.(n.d.).AfricanAmericansandtheUnitedStatesmilitary:Abriefhistory.U.S.NavalAcademy.Smith,I.(2010).Whyblackofficersstillfail.CarlisleBarracks,PA:U.S.ArmyWarCollege.